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CHRISTIANITY  AND  SOCIAL  QUESTIONS 


STUDIES  IN  THEOLOGY 

127710,  cloth.    90  cents  net  per  vol. 


NOW  READY 
A  Critical  Introduction  to  the  New  Testament 

By  Arthur  Samuel  Peake,  D.D. 
Faith  and  its  Psychology 

By  the  Rev.  William  R.  Inge,  D.D. 
Philosophy  and  Religion 

By  the  Rev.  Hastings  Rashdall,  D.Litt.  (Oson), 
D.C.L.  (Durham),  F.B.A. 

Revelation  and  Inspiration 

By  the  Rev.  James  Orr,  D.D. 
Christianity  and  Social  Questions 

By  the  Rev.  William  Cunningham,  DJ).,  F.B.A. 
Christian  Thought  to  the  Reformation 

By  Herbert  B.  Workman,  D.Litt. 
Protestant  Thought  Before  Kant 

By  A.  C.  McGiffert,  Ph.D.,  D.D. 

An  Outline  of  the  History  of  Chiistian  Thought 
Since  Kant 

By  Edward  Caldwell  Moore,  D.D. 

The  Christian  Hope:  A  Study  in  the  Doctrine  of 
Immortality 

By  William  Adams  Brown,  Ph.D.,  D.D. 
The  Theology  of  the  Gospels 

By  the  Rev.  James  Moffatt,  D.D.,  D.Litt. 

The  Text  and  Canon  of  the  New  Testament 

By  Alexander  Sodter,  D.Litt. 

A  Critical  Introduction  to  the  Old  Testament 
By  the  Rev.  George  Buchanan  Gray,  D.D.,  D.Litfe- 

A  Handbook  of  Christian  Apologetics 

By  Alfred  Ernest  Garvie,  M.A.,  D.D. 

Gospel  Origins 

By  the  Rev.  William  West  Holdsworth,  M.A. 

The  Religious  Ideas  of  the  Old  Testament 
By  H.  Wheeler  Robinson,  M.A. 

Christianity  and  Sin 

By  Robert  Mackintosh,  D.D. 

Christianity  and  Ethics 

By  Archibald  B.  D.  Alexander,  M.A.,  D.D., 

The  Environment  of  Early  Christianity    • 

By  S.  Angus,  M.A.,  Ph.D. 

The  Holy  Spirit  in  Thought  and  Experience 

By  T.  Rees,  M.A. 

The  DoctrMic  of  the  Atonement 

By  J.  K.  Mozlev,  M.A. 

History  of  the  Study  of  Theology.     2  Vols. 

By  Charles  Augustus  Briggs.  D.D..  D.Litt. 

The  Justification  of  God 

By  P.  T.  Forsyth,  M.A.,  D.D. 


^CHRISTIANITY    AND 
SOCIAL   QUESTIONS 


BY 

W.   CUNNINGHAM,   D.D.,   F.B.A. 

ABCHDBACON   OF    BLY  ;    FELLOW   OF   TRINITY   COLLEGE    AND   HON.    FELLOW 

OF   GONVILLE   AND   CAIUS   COLLEGE,   CAMBRIDGE;   CORRESPONDING 

MEMBER   OF    THE   MASSACHUSETTS    HISTORICAL   SOCIETY   AND 

FORMERLY   LECTURER    IN    HARVARD    UNIVERSITY 


NEW  YORK 

CHARLES  SCRIBNER'S  SONS 
1917 


"U-' 


GENERAL  INTRODUCTION 
TO  THE  SERIES 

BLln  h&8  no  deeper  or  wider  interest  than  theology  j 
none  deeper,  for  however  nauch  he  may  change,  he 
never  loaea  his  love  of  the  many  questions  it  covers ; 
and  none  wider,  for  under  whatever  law  he  may  live 
he  never  escapes  from  its  spacious  shade ;  nor  does 
he  ever  find  that  it  speaks  to  him  in  vain  or  uses  a 
voice  that  fails  to  reach  him.  Once  the  present 
writer  was  talking  with  a  friend  who  has  equal  fame 
as  a  statesman  and  a  man  of  letters,  and  he  said, 
"Every  day  I  live.  Politics,  which  are  affairs  of 
Man  and  Time,  interest  Jhe  less,  while  Theology, 
which  is  an  affair  of  God  and  Eternity,  interests  me 
more."  As  with  him,  so  with  many,  though  the  many 
feel  that  their  interest  is  in  theology  and  not  in  dogma. 
Dogma,  they  know,  is  but  a  series  of  resolutions 
framed  by  a  council  or  parliament,  which  they  do 
not  respect  any  the  more  because  the  parliament  was 
composed  of  ecclesiastically-minded  persons ;  while  the 
theology  which  bo  interests  them  is  a  discourse  touching 
CJod,  though  the  Being  so  named  is  the  God  man  con- 
ceived as  not  only  related  to  himself  and  his  world  but 
also  as  rising  ever  higher  with  the  notions  of  the  self  and 
Uie  world.  Wise  books,  not  in  dogma  but  in  theology, 
BUij  therefore  be  described  as  the  supreme  need  of  opt 


GENERAL  INTRODUCTION 

dMj,  for  only  such  can  save  ub  from  much  fanatiolim 
and  secure  us  in  the  full  possession  of  a  sober  and 
sane  reason. 

Theology  is  less  a  single  science  than  an  ency- 
clopaedia of  sciences ;  indeed  all  the  sciences  which 
hare  to  do  with  man  have  a  better  right  to  be  called 
theological  than  anthropological,  though  the  man  it 
studies  is  not  simply  an  individual  but  a  race.  Its 
way  of  viewing  man  is  indeed  characteristic;  from 
this  have  come  some  of  its  brighter  ideals  and  some  of 
itfl  darkest  dreams.  The  ideals  are  all  either  ethical 
or  social,  and  would  make  of  earth  a  heaven,  creating 
fraternity  amongst  men  and  forming  all  states  into  a 
goodly  sisterhood  ;  the  dreams  may  be  represented  by 
doctrines  which  concern  sin  on  the  one  side  and  the 
will  of  God  on  the  other.  But  even  this  will  cannot 
make  sin  luminous,  for  were  it  made  radiant  with 
grace,  it  would  cease  to  be  sin. 

These  books  then, — which  have  all  to  be  written  by 
men  who  have  lived  in  the  full  blaze  of  modern  light, 
— though  without  having  either  their  eyes  burned 
oat  or  their  souls  scorched  into  insensibility, — are  in- 
tended to  present  God  in  relation  to  Man  and  Man 
in  relation  to  God.  It  is  intended  that  they  begin,  not 
in  date  of  publication,  but  in  order  of  thought,  with  * 
Theological  Encyclopaedia  which  shall  show  the  circle 
of  sciences  co-ordinated  under  the  term  Theology, 
though  all  will  be  viewed  as  related  to  its  central  or 
main  idea.  This  relation  of  God  to  human  know- 
ledge will  then  be  looked  at  through  mind  as  a  com- 
munion of  Deity  with  humanity,  or  God  in  fellowship 
vith  concrete  man.     On  this  basis  the  idea  of  Bevel*> 


GENERAL  INTRODUCTION 

Hon  will  be  dealt  with.     Then,  so  far  as  history  and 

philology  are  concerned,  the  two  Sacred  Books,  which 
are  here  most  significant,  will  be  viewed  as  the  scholar, 
who  is  also  a  divine,  views  them ;  in  other  words, 
the  Old  and  New  Testaments,  regarded  as  human 
documents,  will  be  criticised  as  a  literature  which 
expresses  relations  to  both  the  present  and  the  future  ; 
that  is,  to  the  men  and  races  who  made  the  books, 
as  well  as  to  the  races  and  men  the  books  made. 
The  Bible  will  thus  be  studied  in  the  Semitic  family 
which  gave  it  being,  and  also  in  the  Indo-European 
families  which  gave  to  it  the  quality  of  the  life  to 
which  they  have  attained.  But  Theology  has  to  do 
with  more  than  sacred  literature;  it  has  also  to  do 
with  the  thoughts  and  life  its  history  occasioned. 
Therefore  the  Church  has  to  be  studied  and  presented 
as  an  institution  which  God  founded  and  man  ad 
ministers.  But  it  is  possible  to  know  this  Church 
only  through  the  thoughts  it  thinks,  the  doctrines 
it  holds,  the  characters  and  the  persons  it  forms,  the 
people  who  are  its  saints  and  embody  its  ideals  of 
sanctity,  the  acts  it  does,  which  are  its  sacraments,  and 
the  laws  it  follows  and  enforces  which  are  its  polity, 
aind  the  young  it  educates  and  the  nations  it  directs 
and  controls.  These  are  the  points  to  be  presented  in 
the  volumes  which  follow,  which  are  all  to  be  occupied 
with  theology  or  the  knowledge  of  God  and  His 
waja. 

▲.nr. 

UQtt 


PREFACE 

Thh  study  of  social  questions  differs  from  economic  in- 
vestigation, partly  on  account  of  the  greater  width  of  the 
field  that  must  be  surveyed,  and  partly  because  the  aims, 
with  which  the  enquiries  are  pursued,  are  quite  distinct. 
The  economist  is  concerned  with  the  causes  of  material 
prosperity ;  for  him  '  things  are  in  the  saddle  and  ride 
mankind.'  Some  of  us,  however,  while  we  recognise  that 
economic  studies  are  necessary  as  a  preliminary,  regard 
them  as  merely  a  preliminary  ;  we  are  not  satisfied  to  dwell 
only  on  the  increase  of  the  comforts  and  conveniences  of 
life,  but  aim  also  at  the  improvement  of  human  life  itself. 
The  object  we  set  ourselves  is  to  study  the  means  by 
which  Man  may  attain  to  welfare  in  all  its  aspects ;  not 
only  to  command  over  material  comforts,  but  to  elevation 
of  mind  and  character  as  well. 

The  economist,  who  is  studying  business  conditions 
among  progressive  peoples  in  the  present  day,  finds  it 
convenient  to  leave  many  important  aspects  of  human 
life — political  and  religious — in  the  background ;  and 
there  is  some  danger  that  he  will  only  take  account 
of  them  occasionally  and  spasmodically,  or  even  ignore 
them  altogether.  A  useful  corrective  to  such  one- 
sidedness  may  be  found  in  historical  studies,  as  the 
interaction,  between  political  and  religious  movements 
on  the  one  hand  and  economic  conditions  and  progress 
on  the  other,  is  kept  constantly  before  the  mind ;  the 
student  of  focial  problems  must  endeavour  to  take  this 
wider  outlook  over  human  affairs  in  the  present  day.     He 


X  CHRISTIANITY  AND  SOCIAL  QUESTIONS 

cannot  dare  to  leave  any  element  of  human  activity — 
political,  religious,  or  economic — deliberately  in  the  back- 
ground :  there  must  be  an  effort  to  take  full  account  of 
human  life  in  all  its  aspects,  and  to  deal  with  each  in  due 
proportion. 

This  book  is  an  attempt  to  set  forth,  from  a  Christian 
standpoint,  the  relative  importance  of  all  the  forces  which 
make  for  human  welfare,  or  militate  against  it.  This  is 
a  large  subject,  and  I  have  had  some  difficulty  in  com- 
pressing it  into  the  space  at  my  disposal.  On  many  of 
the  points  raised  I  have  thought  it  sufficient  to  refer  to 
the  somewhat  fuller  treatment  in  books  or  papers  of  my 
own,  and  the  titles  of  these  are  quoted  without  the  author's 
name.  With  the  view  of  giving  precision  to  my  exposi- 
tion, I  have  frequently  referred  to  writers  who  look  at 
the  problems  from  a  different  standpoint  and  see  them  in 
another  light,  but  I  have  endeavoured  to  avoid  polemics 
of  every  kind.  The  bibliography  has  been  planned  as  a 
brief  guide  to  those  readers  who  desire  to  go  more  fully 
into  some  of  the  highly  debateable  questions  raised  in 
this  brief  sketch. 

W.C. 

Tbibity  Coljlbqb,  Cambbidok, 
Ftbruar^  1910L 


CONTENTS 

PART  I.     WORLD-WIDE  INFLUENCES 
CHAPTER  I.     PHYSICAL  GONDITIOKS 


I.   COKDITIONS  OF  AnIMAL  LiFB 


(a)  The  Priuoiple  of  Population,     , 
{b)  The  Law  of  Diminishmg  Return, 


2.  The  Progress  of  Man — 

(a)  In  Knowledge  and  Power  of  Organisation, 
(6)  In  Character, 


3.  Prospects  of  Further  Advance     .        , 

(a)  Danger  of  Decadence,       .         .        , 
(6)  Criteria  of  Wise  Organisation,  . 

4.  Common  Sense  and  Christianitt  . 

(a)  Grounds  for  Beliering  in  the  Discipline  of  the 

(b)  The  Widening  of  the  Sphere  of  Hope, 

(c)  Wise  Philanthropy  and  Christian  Charity 

6.  Christian  Philosophy  of  Life —    . 

(a)  As  Reconciling  Inconsistent  Claims, 

(b)  Its  Effectiveness  aa  a  Practical  Power, 


Race, 


9 
10 

13 

15 
17 
17 

19 

19 
20 


CHAPTER  IL     RACIAL  DIFFERENCES 

1.  The  Defects  of  the  Lower  Races  ....  21 

(a)  Lack  of  Foresight, 22 

(6)  Lack  of  Facilities  for  Exchange,        ....  24 

(c)  Socialist  Attacks  on  Private  Accnmnlation,      .         .  24 

t.  The  Inter-Racial  Stuugqle  for  Existence  ...  27 

(a)  Adaptability  to  New  renditions,      .         .         J        .  28 

(b)  The  Miiintenance  of  Numbers, 29 


xii  CHRISTIANITY  AND  SOCIAL  QUESTIONS 

3.  Thb  Contact  of  Two  Races  on  the  Same  Soil      ,       .  30 

(a)  Competition  for  Land,      ...•••  31 

(6)  The  Demand  for  Labour,  .         .         .        t        »        •  32 

4.  The  Persistence  of  Racial  Distinctions      .        ,        ,  34 

(a)  Amalgamation  and  Assimilation,       ....  35 

(6)  Economic  Cosmopolitanism, 3C 

5.  The  Christian  Claim  for  Fair  Plat  on  Behalf  of 

Native  Races 40 

(a)  The  Safe;?uards  of  Ordinary  Morality  Insufficient,     .  40 

(ft)  A  Speciticnlly  Christian  Duty, 43 

(c)  The  Co-operation  of  Official  and  Missionary  Effort,   .  44 


CHAPTER  III.    CIVIL  AUTHORITY 

1.  The  Enforcing  of  Right  and  Justice    ....  46 

(a)  The  Superhum  in  Element  in  the  State,    ...  47 

(6)  The  Responsibility  of  Rulers, 48 

(c)  The  Duties  of  Subjects, 49 

(d)  Economic  Aspects  of  Good  Government,  ...  60 

2.  The  Utilitarian  State .52 

(o)  Lack  of  Public  Spirit  in  the  Management  of  Civil 

Affairs, 54 

(6)  The  Spasmodic  Recognition  of  Supreme  Right,          .  55 

(c)  Obstacles  to  Arbitration, 56 

{<£)  The  Divergence  of  the  English  and  the  American 

Conceptions  of  Political  Life,     .         .         .        .  57 

3.  Corruption  and  Decadence 59 

(a)  The  Nemesis  of  a  Defective  Sense  of  Duty,      .        ,  59 

(6)  Statesmanship  and  Statescraft,          ....  62 


PAET  II.    NATIONAL  ECONOMIC  LIFE 

CHAPTER  I.    THE  FUNCTIONS  OF  GOVERNMENT 
1.  Justice  and  Expedienct  .        .        . 


(a)  The  Punishment  of  Crime,        .        . 
(ft)  Equality  of  Taxation,        .         .        , 
(c)  The  Welfare  of  the  Country,     . 
{d}  Christian  Influence  on  Political  Lifp, 


66 

60 
69 
72 
76 


CONTENTS  xiii 

PASS 

t.  Favourable  Conditions  fok  Economic  Lim  ...  79 

(a)  The  Maintenance  of  a  Well-ordered  Community,      .  1U 

(b)  Compulsion  and  Reward, 82 

(c)  Certainty  of  Reward  and  Freedom  to  Use,        ,        ,  83 

3.  Grounds  for  State  Interfeuence 85 

(a)  Limitations  to  the  Rights  of  Prlrate  Property,          .  85 

(b)  Preventincr  the  Relative  Waste  of  Land,   ...  86 

(c)  Co-ordinating  the  Operation  ot  Capital,    .        ,        ,  88 

(d)  Economic  Policy, .89 

4.  Criteria  of  FIkalthy  Economic  Life     ....  91 

(a)  Unemployment  as  a  Symptom  of  Disease,         .        .  91 

(6)  The  Defectiveness  of  Money  Mejisorement,       .         .  93 
(c)  The    Danger  of    Neglecting    Money    Measurement 

altogether, 95 


CHAPTER  IL    THE  REWARD  OF  SERVICES 

1.  The  Framework  of  Societt  and  the  Force  of  Com- 

petition         99 

(a)  The  Double  ('haracter  of  Social  Problems,         .         .  99 

(6)  The  Social  Servic4?s  of  Capitalists  and  Landowners,  .  100 

(e)  The  Regulation  of  Competition,         ....  104 

(d)  The  Elimination  of  Competition,      ....  106 

2.  The  Reward  of  Labour 109 

(a)  Class  Distinctions  in  Personal  Service,     .        .        .  109 

(b)  Ladders  for  Rising  in  the  World,      .         .         .        .111 

(c)  Restricting  Supply  and  Attracting  Public  Custom,  .  113 

(d)  Inflated  Reward, 120 

(<)   Sweated  Industries, 121 

3.  The  Profit  os  Capital  .        •       .       •        .        ,        ,123 

(a)  Profit  and  Interest, 123 

(b)  Interest  and  Extortion, 126 

(c)  The  Credit  System  and  the  Community,   .         ,        .  127 

(d)  Waste  and  Organisation, ]  29 

(e)  Municipal  Enterprise, 131 

(/)  Monopoly  and  the  Public  Interest,  ....  134 

4  The  Return  from  Land 137 

(a)  The  Services  of  Landowners, 137 

(&)  The  Various  Uses  of  Land, 139 

(c)  Besiduary  Payments, 140 


CHRISTIANITY  AUD  SOCIAL  QUESTIONS 


(d)  The  Increment  in  Progressire  Countries,  . 
(«)  State- Appropriation  of  Exceptional  Reward, 


6.  Drastic  Eemediks 


(a)  State- Appropriation  of  Capital  and  Land, 

(b)  Abaadonment  of  the  Attempt  to  Promot«  Public 

Good  through  Private  Interest, .         . 

(c)  Effects  on  Energy  and  Enterprise,     .        . 
{d)  Universal  Brotherhood,     .        .        .        • 


143 
145 

148 

148 

149 
151 
153 


CHAPTER  IIL    HALF  TRUTHS 

1.  Problsxs  op  Life, 156 

(a)  Empirical  Kjiowledge, 165 

(6)  Hasty  Generalisation, 158 

(c)  Erperience  and  Practicability, .        •        .        .        t  159 

2.  Thi  Mechanism  of  Society,    ......  161 

(a)  The  Growth  of  Economic  Science,    .        .        •        .  161 

(b)  Popular  Misunderstandings 163 

(c)  Miscalculation  by  Experts, 165 

3.  Particulak  Aims,    .  •••••.  167 

(a)  Cheap  Food, 167 

(6)  The  English  Yeomanry, 171 

(e)  Utopias,    .••••••••  174 


PAET  IIL     PERSONAL  DUTY 

CHAPTER  L    CHRISTIAN  CHARACTER 

1.  Self-Dedication 

(a)  The  Influence  of  Individuals  on  Society, 
(6)  Enthusiasm  and  Self-F^acrifice, . 

(c)  The  Divine  liife  Manifested  in  Place  and  Time, 

(d)  The  Gospel  as  a  Spiritual  Force, 

t.  Peesonal  Service 

(o)  Positive  Guidance, 


(6)  The  Restraint  of  Pafision  . 

(c)  Diligence  in  Business, 

(d)  Power  of  Restraining  Passion, 


176 

176 

178 
180 
181 

183 

183 
184 
186 
188 


C0NTE^"^s 

Thi  Responsibility  or  TRUsiKKiiHip 

(a)  The  Earth  is  the  Loid'ii,  . 
(h)  The  Duties  of  Invc-ators,    . 
(c)  The  O!  ligations  of  th-^  Wealthy, 
{d}  Reckl^Psness  about  Wealth, 


Mas 

ILiJ 

190 
191 
193 
194 


CHAPTER  II.     SECULARISED  ("HRISTIANITY 

1.  AvowEDLT  Christian  Socialism 

(a)  rhilantkropic  Aims, 

(6)  United  Aclion,  .         . 

(c)  Double  Allpgiance,  .        • 


2.  Mundane  Theockacies    . 

(a)  The  Reform  of  Society,     . 
(h)  Temporary  Needs,    . 

(c)  The  Sentiment  of  Brotberhood, 

(d)  The  Supremacy  of  Christian  I^w, 

3.  Non-Christian  Methods  of  Reform 

{n)  Transferring  Responsibility, 

(6)  Abstinence  from  Things  as  Evil  in 

(c)  Agitation  ai^'ainst  Evil, 


198 

198 
199 
200 

202 

202 
204 
206 
208 

211 

211 
214 
S16 


CHAPTER  III.     THE  CHRISTIANITY  OF  CHRIST 

(a)  Christ  as  a  Preacher, 

(6)  Christ's  Habitual  Practice, 

(c)  The  Christian  Commission, 


BIBLIOGRAPHY, 
INDEX, 


218 
220 
223 

225 


229 


CHRISTIANITY    AND    SOCIAL 
QUESTIONS 

PART  I 
WORLD-WIDE  INFLUENCES 

CHAPTER   I 

PHYSICAL   CONDITIONS 
1.  Conditions  of  Animal  Life 

In  the  solution  of  every  social  problem  many  forces  are  at 
work,  and  it  is  not  easy  to  say  at  any  particular  time  or 
place  which  are  the  most  important.  High  personal  en- 
thusiasms carry  men  away  at  times  of  national  excitement ; 
while  laws  and  social  conventions  seem  to  cast  the  men  ^f 
one  country  into  the  same  mould,  and  to  stamp  them  as 
absolutely  distinct  from  the  people  of  other  lands.  At  all 
events,  we  may  feel  that  there  are  some  forces  which  are 
operative  in  all  times  and  in  all  parts  of  the  globe  ;  what- 
ever particular  cases  of  progress  or  of  poverty  we  may  be 
considering,  it  is  always  wise  to  take  account  of  the  fact 
that  man  is  an  animal,  and  that  the  needs  and  greeds  of 
animal  life  are  in  the  background,  even  when  they  are 
veiled  from  us  by  the  usages  of  civilisation.  We  may 
begin  by  considering  Man  as  an  animal,  and  discussing  the 
main  conditions  which  alTcct  his  life,  as  well  as  that  of 
other  animals. 

(a)  The  human  race,  like  all  other  groups  of  the  animal 

A 


S  PHYSICAL  CONDITIONS  [ch. 

kingdom,  has  the  power  of  increasing  with  great  rapidity ; 
there  are  indeed  so  many  hostile  forces  which  make  for  the 
destruction  of  Hfe,  that  it  is  only  because  of  this  vigorous 
reproductive  power  that  any  one  type  of  animal  life  can 
permanently  survive.  The  destruction  of  young  herring  is 
enormous ;  they  have  to  contend  against  a  multitude  of 
enemies,  and  a  very  small  change  in  the  balance  of  forces 
may  easily  extinguish  a  species  in  a  particular  habitat. 
The  wastage  of  animal  life  is  enormous,  and  there  is  need 
that  it  should  be  constantly  replenished.  If  Man  had  not 
had,  like  other  animals,  a  power  of  rapid  multiplication, 
it  seems  unlikely  that  he  could  have  survived,  and  spread, 
and  adapted  himself  to  life  in  every  part  of  the  globe. 
Considering  how  little  protection  he  has,  and  how  feeble 
his  natural  means  of  attack  and  defence,  it  is  extraordinary 
that  he  should  have  held  his  own  at  all  against  the  other 
inhabitants  of  the  jungle.  The  power  of  rapid  reproduction, 
under  favourable  conditions,  is  very  great ;  population  may 
double  itself  in  five-and-twenty  years ;  and  hence,  as  we 
see,  Man  has  been  able  to  hold  his  own  against  and  subdue 
the  other  forms  of  animal  life. 

"While  this  reproductive  power  has  been  essential  to 
human  survival  in  the  conflict  with  beasts  and  reptiles,  it 
has  also  involved  Man  in  a  struggle  with  inanimate  nature. 
In  regions  where  Man  is  content  to  subsist  on  what  nature 
affords,  and  exercises  his  skill  in  hunting  or  fishing,  it  is  clear 
that  a  growth  in  the  numbers  of  a  tribe  will  soon  render  it 
increasingly  difficult  for  them  to  obtam  sufficient  susten- 
ance. Hunters  who  find  that  a  rival  tribe  is  encroaching 
on  the  available  game  are  forced  to  fight,  and  they  can 
only  hope  to  retain  access  to  a  sufficient  food  supply  by 
exterminating  their  foes.  It  is  equally,  though  not  so 
obviously,  true,  that  when  man  settles  down  to  improve 
the  natural  provision  for  his  needs  by  tillage,  he  enters  on 
a  constant  struggle  with  nature  in  a  new  form.  Malthus 
made  a  careful  collection  of  evidence  as  to  the  character  and 


I.]  THE  LAW  OF  DIMINISHING  RETURN  3 

intensity  of  this  struggle,  and  formulated  the  one  great 
economic  law  which  has  been  reached  by  induction— popu 
lation  tends  to  increase  more  rapidly  than  the  means  of 
subsistence  tend  to  increase.  Since  it  was  first  armounced, 
there  has  been  much  discussion  as  to  the  most  accurate  way 
of  stating  this  principle  ;'  but  as  a  summary  of  facts  in 
regard  to  the  physical  conditions  of  human  life  on  the  globe 
it  remains  unassailable  ;  it  gives  a  fundamental  explanation 
of  much  of  the  misery  and  suffering  in  the  world.  Since 
man,  like  other  animals,  tends  to  increase  in  number  faster 
than  the  means  of  subsistence  tend  to  increase,  the  scourge 
of  poverty,  with  its  accompaniment  of  starvation  and 
disease,  has  been  brought  into  operation  again  and  again, 
as  a  positive  check,  and  has  ruthlessly  reduced  the  popula- 
tion within  the  limits  of  the  existing  food  supply.  In  some 
stages  of  society,  the  ravages  of  war  and  pestilence  and 
famine  are  frequent  and  effective,  but  other  causes  are 
steadily  at  work  to  keep  down  the  numbers  in  communities 
which  are  not  subject  to  occasional  devastation.  Malthus 
noted  that  the  weakest  lives  are  those  which  succumb 
most  quickly,  and  that  a  high  rate  of  infant  mortality  is 
a  mark  which  indicates  the  intensity  of  the  pressure  of 
increasing  population  on  the  means  of  subsistence. 

(6)  The  seriousness  of  the  condition;^  under  whi'ch  human 
iife  is  maintained  becomes  apparent  when  we  remember 
that  all  food,  and  most  of  the  materials  for  clothing  and 
shelter,  are  drawn  from  the  surface  of  the  earth,  so  that 
there  are  inevitable  limits  to  the  supply  of  the  necessaries 
of  life.  There  is,  of  course,  a  limitation  of  area,  and  we 
can  calculate  the  extent  of  the  surface  of  the  globe  which  it 
would  be  possible  to  cultivate.  Cultivation,  too,  is  carried 
on  in  accordance  with  what  is  called  the  law  of  diminishing 
returns  from  land.  This,  like  the  principle  of  population, 
is  a  statement  of  observed  fact,  which  came  to  be  noticed 

1  'The  statement  of  the  Malthusian  Principle,'  in  AlacmiUan't  Magazine, 
December  1883. 


4  PHYSICAL  CONDITIONS  [ch. 

in  England  and  to  be  formulated  in  the  early  part  of  the 
nineteenth  century.  In  any  community  where  no  im- 
provement in  the  arts  of  life  is  taking  place,  additional 
supplies  of  food  can  only  be  obtained  at  an  increased  rate 
of  outlay  :  if  double  the  ordinary  labour  is  expended  on 
the  soil,  it  will  produce  more  food  ;  but  it  will  produce  less 
than  double  of  what  was  obtained  before.  Where  the 
additional  supply  can  only  be  obtained  by  taking  worse  and 
less  ^favourably  situated  land  into  cultivation,  there  will 
obviously  be  a  diminished  rate  of  return  ;  and  the  same 
principle  holds  good  where  labour  is  applied  with  greater 
assiduity  in  the  cultivation  of  land  already  under  tillage. 
Hence  it  seems  at  first  sight  as  if  the  struggle  for  existence 
must  necessarily  go  on  with  increasing  intensity  ;  popula- 
tion tends  to  increase  on  the  one  hand,  while,  on  the  other, 
there  appears  to  be  a  greater  difficulty  in  meeting  the 
simplest  requirements  of  human  life. 

In  the  beginning  of  last  century,  when  the  operation 
of  these  principles  began  to  be  generally  recognised,  there 
was  in  many  quarters  a  sense  of  hopelessness  in  regard  to 
social  improvement,  since  it  seemed  that  there  were 
physical  tendencies  which  must  inevitably  force  man  down 
to  a  more  sordid  and  squalid  existence.  There  was  a  wide- 
spread danger  that  the  acceptance  of  these  economic 
doctrines  would  paralyse  all  philanthropic  effort,  and  the 
'  dismal  science  '  seemed  to  cut  away  the  ground  for  any 
hope  of  permanent  amelioration.  Every  proposal  for 
bettering  the  condition  of  the  poor  was  waived  aside  as  a 
mere  temporary  alleviation  which  might  do  harm  in  the 
long  run.  It  was  feared  that  the  raising  of  wages  in  any 
industry  would  only  give  opportunity  for  the  growth  of 
additional  numbers,  and  that  the  food  which  was  requisite 
for  these  numbers  could  only  be  wrung  from  the  soil  with 
more  strenuous  effort.  This  appalling  prospect  is  not 
merely  suggested  by  temporary  congestion,  but  is  fore- 
shadowed by  principles  which  are  in  operation  in  all  parts 


I.]  KNOWLEDGE  AND  ORGANISATION  6 

of  the  world,  so  that  there  seems  to  be  ample  reason  for 
pessimism. 

2.  The  Progress  of  Man 

It  is  well  to  face  the  issue  quite  clearly,  and  to  bear  in 
mind  these  underlying  physical  conditions  of  human 
existence  on  the  globe  ;  but  we  need  not  give  way  to 
despair  when  we  remember  that,  though  Man  is  an  animal, 
he  is  not  merely  an  animal,  since  he  is  rational ;  he  is  not 
merely  the  plaything  of  blind  forces,  but  he  has  powers 
of  intelligence  and  will,  which  enable  him  to  modify  these 
forces,  and  thus  to  suspend  the  operation  of  the  principles 
which  seem  to  forebode  inevitable  evil.  From  this  point  of 
view  we  can  see  the  problems  in  another  light. 

(a)  The  law  of  diminishing  returns  from  land  holds  good 
for  any  state  of  society  which  is  stationary  so  far  as  the 
arts  of  life  are  concerned  :  there  is  no  region  where  progress 
in  the  arts  is  steady  and  continuous,  and  there  are  some 
countries  where  the  same  practices  and  methods  have  been 
maintained  for  centuries.  The  art  of  tillage  was  prosecuted 
with  great  success  in  Egjrpt  under  the  Pharaohs,  and  long 
ages  ago  in  India  ;  but  for  many  centuries  past  there  had 
been  little  if  any  change,  until  it  came  about  under  the 
influence  of  British  occupation.  In  England  there  was 
little  improvement  from  the  twelfth  to  the  sixteenth 
century.  Taking  the  world  as  a  whole,  and  excluding  the 
last  century  and  a  half  of  rapid  change,  we  may  say  that  a 
stationary  condition  in  the  agricultural  arts  has  been  the 
normal  state  of  affairs,  and  that  therefore  the  law  of 
diminishing  returns  has  been  in  almost  constant  and  very 
general  operation.  Still,  improvement  in  the  art  has  taken 
place  from  time  to  time  ;  and  whenever  such  improvement 
is  introduced,  the  operation  of  the  law  of  diminishing 
returns  is  suspended.  The  very  meaning  of  improved 
methods   is    that   an    increased   result   can    be   obtained 


6  PHYSICAL  CONDITIONS  [ch. 

with  less  outlay  than  before.  An  improved  system  of 
cultivation  means,  that  by  the  application  of  increased  skill 
better  results  are  secured.  In  the  Tudor  times  the  practice 
of  alternating  pasture  and  arable  husbandry  was  a  great 
improvement  on  the  old  customary  management ;  while 
the  rotation  of  crops  was  introduced  with  similar  advantages 
in  the  eighteenth  century.  Increased  knowledge  of 
methods  of  organising  labour  is  equally  important.  From 
a  very  early  time  Man  discovered  the  advantages  of  co- 
operation in  agriculture  ;  it  is  the  employment,  not  of  an 
individual,  but  of  a  family  or  a  village  working  together. 
The  maintenance  of  a  similar  agricultural  system,  which  all 
take  their  part  in  carrying  out,  is  the  foundation  of  the 
village  community  ;  a  definite  system  was  perpetuated 
through  the  Middle  Ages  on  manorial  estates,  and  in  the 
common  field  cultivation.  Unless  such  a  system  can  be 
itself  changed  for  the  better,  from  time  to  time,  it  may 
prove  an  obstacle  to  further  progress.  Every  improve- 
ment in  the  management  of  an  estate  or  the  organisation  of 
husbandry  has  facilitated  the  securing  of  better  results 
with  less  outlay.  Increased  knowledge  may  also  show 
how  to  make  a  permanent  improvement  which  will  save 
annual  outlay,  as  the  system  of  subsoil  draining  has  done. 
Owing  to  the  increase  of  skill,  a  far  larger  return  per  acre  is 
obtained  from  the  English  soil  than  was  possible  in  the 
thirteenth  century  ;  while  great  districts,  which  could  not 
then  be  cultivated  at  all,  are  now  yielding  valuable  crops. 
The  drudgery  in  hours  of  labour  per  acre  must  be  very 
much  smaller  than  it  was  in  the  thirteenth  century,  while 
the  return  far  exceeds  anything  that  the  mediaeval  agri- 
culturist dreamed  of.  He  was  content  with  four  or  five 
times  the  seed,^  and  sometimes  had  to  put  up  with  three  ; 
while  the  farmer  to-day  expects  a  return  of  twelve  to  fifteen 
times  the  com  he  has  sowed.     It  is  obvious  that  the 

1  Maitland,  Domesday  Book  and  Beyond,  p.  438 ;  J.  E.  T.  Rogers,  Agri- 
culture  and  Prices,  i.  p.  51. 


1.]  CHARACTER  7 

progress  of  human  skill  has  shown  itself  capable  of  sus- 
pending the  law  of  diminishing  returns. 

Improved  knowledge  of  the  conditions  of  tillage  is  not 
the  only  form  of  skill  which  is  effective  in  suspending  the 
pressure  of  population  in  the  means  of  subsistence.  Im- 
proved manufacturing  skill,  and  increased  facilities  for 
procuring  the  comforts  of  life  and  instruments  and  means 
of  cultivation,  have  a  similar  effect.  The  development  of 
industry  and  of  commerce  gives  a  stimulus  to  the  increase 
of  cultivation,  while  this  in  turn  affords  an  opportunity 
for  industrial  development.  All  kinds  of  material  progress 
react  upon  each  other. 

An  enormous  heritage  of  skill  and  knowledge  has  been 
amassed  and  is  being  steadily  increased  ;  so  that  Man  is 
infinitely  better  equipped  to-day  than  he  was  in  the  time 
of  the  Pharaohs,  for  carrying  on  the  effort  to  master 
Nature,  and  render  her  his  servant.  In  a  highly  organised 
society,  where  the  inhabitants  act  as  a  disciplined  army, 
the  struggle  for  subsistence  can  be  carried  on  under  the 
most  advantageous  conditions. 

(6)  Man  has  the  power  of  learning,  better  and  better, 
how  to  deal  with  the  world  in  which  he  lives  ;  it  is  also 
possible  for  him  to  learn  to  master  himself  and  to  restrain 
his  own  animal  passions.  The  tendency  for  population 
to  increase  faster  than  the  means  of  subsistence  increase 
is  not  an  uncontrollable  physical  impulse  that  works  re- 
morselessly. A  preventive  check  is  introduced  by  any  one 
who  exercises  self-restraint  and  defers  marriage  till  he  is 
able  to  maintain  a  family,  so  that  the  increase  of  numbers 
need  not  bring  about  an  increased  pressure.  The  im- 
portant thing  is  that  the  increase  of  subsistence  shall  come 
first,  and  that  the  increase  of  population  shall  follow. 
In  any  community  where  diligence  in  working  is  general, 
and  men  do  not  attempt  to  set  up  house  till  they  have  the 
ability  and  opportunity  of  earning  a  living,  the  pressure  of 
population  is  not  felt  as  an  evil.     Those  who  ignore  the 


8  PHYSICAL  CONDITIONS  [ch. 

possibility  of  cultivating  self-control  have  made  Malthusian 
doctrine  an  excuse  for  advocating  practices  which  are  in- 
consistent with  private  virtue  as  well  as  with  public  well- 
being.  Malthus  himself  held  that  the  preventive  check 
of  deferred  marriage — which  is  not  only  consistent  with 
morality,  but  is  the  dictate  of  ordinary  prudence — would, 
if  generally  adopted,  bring  about  a  gradual  progress  of 
society  in  numbers  without  any  fear  of  a  diminution  in 
comfort.  Just  as  the  progress  of  man  in  knowledge  sus- 
pends the  operation  of  the  law  of  diminishing  returns,  so  the 
diffusion  of  better  personal  morality  would  suffice  to  prevent 
the  tendency  to  increase  and  multiply  from  being  an  evil. 
Indeed,  so  far  from  regarding  a  large  population  as  a 
thing  in  itself  to  be  dreaded,  we  should  recognise  that  it 
is  one  of  the  marks  of  a  prosperous  community.  So  long  as 
the  population  are  actively  employed  and  well  nourished, 
every  addition  to  the  numbers  is  an  accession  of  strength. 
If  a  population  is  sparse  and  scattered,  there  may  be 
difficulty  in  organising  adequate  defences.  During  the 
seventeenth  century  in  London,  this  matter  presented  itself 
as  a  practical  question  :  the  Civil  Wars  had  unsettled 
society,  harvests  had  been  bad  and  food  dear,  a  terrible 
plague  had  swept  over  the  town  and  numbers  had  lost  their 
lives.  The  nation,  and  especially  the  City,  seemed  to  be 
defenceless  for  want  of  men,  and  continental  quarrels  were 
threatening.  As  a  matter  of  fact,  London  was  shortly 
afterwards  exposed  to  the  risk  of  bombardment  by  the 
Dutch.  More  men  were  wanted  that  industry  might  revive 
and  flourish,  and  a  deep  anxiety  was  felt  that  the  numbers 
should  increase  rapidly,  and  that  populousness  should  be 
maintained.  No  nation  can  maintain  its  independence, 
still  less  can  it  exercise  a  decided  and  increasing  influence 
in  the  world,  unless  it  has  a  growing  population  ;  and  in 
districts  where  the  population  is  large,  industry  can  be 
effectively  organised,  and  the  average  standard  of  comfort 
may   be  very  high.     A  large  population  in  a  growing 


L]  DANGER  OF  DECADENCE  9 

community  is  a  source  of  strength  ;  on  the  other  hand, 
there  may  be  a  redundant  population  in  a  ( (mntry  where  the 
total  numbers  are  not  large  and  the  density  is  not  great. 
When  there  is  a  high  degree  of  self-mastery,  a  redundant 
population  need  not  come  into  existence  ;  and  where  rapid 
progress  is  going  on,  there  is  reason  to  hope  that  if  it  does 
come  into  existence,  it  will  before  long  be  absorbed  in  useful 
occupations. 

3.  Prospects  of  Further  Advance 

When  we  recognise  that  Man  is  not  merely  an  animal,  but 
a  rational  animal,  we  may  cease  to  regard  the  doctrine  of 
Malthus  with  dismay,  as  if  it  told  of  irresistible  forces 
under  which  the  human  race  is  being  inevitably  crushed. 
It  is  clear  that  Man,  by  the  exercise  of  will  and  reason, 
which  result  in  the  raising  of  character  and  the  growth  of 
improved  organisation,  is  able  to  suspend  the  operation  of 
these  physical  tendencies,  and  to  keep  them  from  being 
mischievous.  In  this  way  we  may  see  that  the  best  pro- 
spect for  keeping  the  evils  at  bay  and  for  raising  human 
life  to  a  higher  level,  lies,  not  so  much  in  the  amelioration 
of  material  conditions,  as  in  the  raising  of  character  and 
the  improvement  of  organisation.  This  was  the  point  on 
which  Dr.  Chalmers  insisted  in  the  agitation  he  led  in  1817 
for  '  the  extinction  of  pauperism ' ;  ^  we  must  still  look  in 
this  direction  for  the  secret  of  permanent  prosperity. 

(a)  Ample  evidence  may  be  adduced  which  will  serve  to 
confirm  this  view ;  but,  on  the  other  hand,  it  is  clear  that 
the  amelioration  of  material  conditions  does  not  in  itself 
afford  any  prospect  of  permanent  relief.  If  a  greatly 
increased  area  of  land  were  brought  into  cultivation,  so 
that  more  food  was  available  for  a  community,  an  oppor- 
tunity would  be  available  for  all  the  inliabitants  to  live  on 
a  higher  plane  of  comfort ;  but  if  the  inhabitants  generally, 

1  Works,  xzi.  p.  247. 


10  PHYSICAL  CONDITIONS  [ca 

or  even  a  small  portion  of  them,  had  no  effective  desire  to 
adopt  a  new  and  better  standard  of  comfort,  the  opportunity 
would  be  thrown  away  ;  in  a  few  years  there  would  only 
be  a  much  larger  number  living  at  the  old  level.  This 
appears  to  account  for  the  fact  which  Mill  pointed  out  ^  as 
so  terribly  disappointing,  that  the  enormously  increased 
power  over  nature,  which  has  come  with  the  age  of  inven- 
tion, has  to  such  a  large  extent  resulted  merely  in  the 
increase  of  numbers  who  are  living  on  the  limit  of  sub- 
sistence, and  only  obtain  a  bare  minimum  of  the  requisites 
for  human  life.  On  the  other  hand,  it  seems  to  be  true  that 
if  degeneration  of  character  and  dislocation  or  destruction 
of  organisation  diminish  the  productive  power  of  a  com- 
munity, the  pressure  on  means  of  subsistence  will  come  into 
active  operation  even  when  population  is  not  increasing. 
Redundancy  may  arise  in  cormection  with  a  decline  of 
civilisation — this  seems  to  have  been  one  of  the  features 
of  the  decay  of  the  Roman  province  of  Britain,  in  the 
struggle  with  Nature  a  well-disciplined  army  may  steadily 
advance,  but  if  it  becomes  disorganised  there  can  only  be 
a  harassing  and  ineffective  guerilla  warfare.  The  terrible 
retrogression  of  Western  and  Southern  Europe  in  conse- 
quence of  the  barbarian  invasions  is  an  abiding  illustration 
of  the  misery  which  may  be  brought  about  when  a  highly 
organised  industrial  and  commercial  society  is  disinteg- 
rated. 

(6)  These  considerations  may  give  us  a  clue  in  regard  to 
another  far-reaching  question,  for  they  help  us  to  note  the 
forms  of  organisation  which  have  most  inherent  vitality 
and  are  least  exposed  to  shocks  from  without  and  decay 
within.  The  societies  in  which  the  best  type  of  personal 
character  is  formed  and  maintained  may  be  expected  to 
have  the  most  permanent  success ;  the  secret  of  the 
strength  of  any  community  does  not  lie  merely  in  productive 
or  military  power. 

'  J.  S.  Mill,  Political  Economy  (ed.  Ashley),  Book  iv.  vi.  2,  p.  761, 


l)  criteria  of  wise  organisation  11 

In  all  social  organisation,  for  agricultural  or  industrial 
purposes,  there  must  necessarily  be  some  directing  power, 
and  there  must  also  be  subordination.  Even  in  the  most 
primitive  forms  of  organised  society  there  can  be  no  com- 
plete independence.  The  doctrine  of  Locke  as  to  a  state 
of  nature  in  which  each  man  enjoyed  complete  liberty  as 
a  right  ^  is  a  mere  figment  of  the  imagination,  though  it 
served  as  a  basis  for  the  doctrines  of  the  French  Revolution 
and  the  Constitution  of  the  United  States.  In  all  organised 
society  there  must  be  subordination  ;  and  the  work  of 
directing  energies  has  been  carried  out  by  means  of  compul- 
sion ;  discipline  has  been  needed  to  train  men  to  work  at 
the  right  thing,  and  to  keep  them  working  at  it  for  the  proper 
time.  The  discipline  which  fits  a  man  for  being  a  useful 
member  of  the  community  is  essential  to  the  continuance 
of  well-ordered  society  ;  and  though  it  interferes  with  his 
liberty,  it  helps  to  make  a  better  man  of  him.  The  discip- 
line which  man  may  exercise  on  the  lower  animals  is  an 
instructive  illustration.  Sir  Percy  Fitzpatrick  insists  that 
the  rigoi'ous  training  to  which  he  submitted  his  favourite 
dog  2  was  amply  justified,  since  it  made  it  possible  for  the 
dog  to  be  the  trusted  friend  and  companion  of  man.  A 
large  proportion  of  the  human  race  are  so  lacking  in  fore- 
sight and  perseverance  that  they  would  fritter  away  their 
lives  in  idleness  unless  they  were  subjected  to  compulsion. 
This  has  been  the  principle  on  which  all  the  great  civilisa- 
tions of  antiquity  acted,  but  the  system  of  compulsory 
slavery  they  adopted  was  defective,  as  it  gave  so  little 
opportunity  for  the  individual  human  being  to  develop  his 
higher  qualities.  In  so  far  as  free  labour  can  be  intro- 
duced, and  the  principle  of  reward,  which  appeals  to  free 
men,  is  substituted  for  the  principle  of  compulsion,  there 
is  an  attraction  and  a  stimulus  for  the  individual  to  do  his 
best  and  to  improve  his  position  ;    and  tliis  introduces 

*  'Civil  Government,'  in  Works,  iv.  p.  339. 
«  Jock  of  the  Bushvddt,  p.  84. 


12  PHYSICAL  CONDITIONS  [cH. 

elements  of  healthy  personal  ambition.  In  spite  of  all  the 
limitations  which  it  imposes,  the  modern  community,  with 
its  principle  of  reward  and  its  facilities  for  freedom  of 
movement,  gives  far  more  opportunity  for  each  individual 
to  cherish  and  give  effect  to  wholesome  personal  ambitions, 
than  has  ever  been  the  case  before.  This  has  become 
possible  because  the  free  labourer  is  to  a  much  greater 
extent  self-disciplined,  and  can  be  trusted  to  carry  on  his 
work  as  it  ought  to  be  done,  and  when  it  ought  to  be  done, 
much  more  confidently  than  is  the  case  with  slaves  who 
need  to  be  under  constant  supervision. 

There  is  then  a  possible  danger  in  the  very  completeness 
of  organisation  ;  it  may  guard  so  perfectly  against  waste 
of  every  kind,  that  there  may  be  no  opportunity  for  the 
individual  to  exercise  responsibility,  and  thus  to  grow  in 
intelligence  and  character.  This  appears  to  have  been  a 
fundamental  defect  in  the  marvellous  agricultural  and 
industrial  communities  which  the  Jesuits  built  up  in  the 
seventeenth  and  eighteenth  centuries,  out  of  most  un- 
promising materials,  in  Paraguay.^  The  natives  became 
highly  skilled  in  many  industries,  but  they  were  so  admirably 
drilled,  and  so  docile  in  conforming  to  the  drill,  that  no 
opportunity  was  given  them  for  showing  initiative  or 
acquiring  force  of  character.  When  the  directing  and 
controlling  powers  were  withdra\ra,  the  whole  system 
appears  to  have  collapsed.  It  is  only  by  giving  men  some 
opportunities  of  leisure,  and  of  acquiring  some  property  of 
their  o^vn,  that  they  can  rise  to  their  responsibility,  and 
by  developing  a  power  of  self -discipline,  justify  the  trust 
which  has  been  reposed  in  them. 

The  fostering  the  power  of  self-discipline  is  the  thing 
to  be  aimed  at  in  all  education,  and  to  be  taken  into  account 
in  all  the  institutions  of  the  State  which  are  formative  of 
character.  The  claim  of  the  undisciplined  to  have  liberty 
to  do  as  they  like  must  result  in  mere  anarchy  ;  independ- 

1  Soutbey,  History  of  Brazil,  ii.  pp.  335,  343. 


L]  COMMON  SENSE  AND  CHRISTIANITY  13 

ence  and  liberty  appear  to  be  incompatible  with  efficient 
organisation  of  any  kind ;  thorough-going  organisation 
seems  to  exclude  liberty,  but  with  the  growth  of  self- 
discipline,  organisation  and  independence  become  com- 
patible. The  liberty  of  self-disciplined  men  is  the  goal 
to  be  aimed  at,  and  those  societies  have  most  inherent 
vitality  which  are  bearing  this  steadily  in  mind. 


4.  Common  Sense  and  Christianity 

The  true  character  of  the  struggle  for  subsistence,  as 
it  occurs  in  actual  life,  is  only  understood  when  we  take 
account  not  only  of  the  physical  tendencies  which  affect 
Man — as  an  animal — but  also  of  the  possibilities  opened 
up  by  his  rational  powers.  The  present  situation  need  not 
force  us  to  despair  ;  but  it  is  so  serious  as  to  give  rise  to 
great  anxiety.  There  are  such  masses  of  human  beings  who 
live  a  merel}''  animal  existence,  with  no  opportunities  of 
anything  better.  The  long  tale  of  woe  from  savage  lands 
seems  to  be  hardly  so  hopeless  as  the  failures  of  civilisation 
to  remove  the  degradation  which  disfigures  progressive 
communities.  Though  the  pressure  of  population  on  the 
means  of  subsistence  may  be  kept  at  bay,  there  is  a  constant 
danger  that  lassitude  and  indolence  may  bring  it  into  more 
active  operation  at  any  time.  There  are,  as  it  seems  to  me, 
three  distinct  habits  of  mind  with  which  different  people 
view  the  conditions  in  regard  to  man's  place  and  possibilities 
in  the  world,  and  each  of  these  mental  attitudes  will  be 
associated  with  a  corresponding  feeling  in  regard  to  the 
Christian  religion. 

Anarchists  altogether  repudiate  the  diagnosis  given 
above  of  the  fundamental  reason  for  the  misery  and  poverty 
in  existing  society  ;  thej'  deny  that  the  miseiy  in  the  world 
is  due  to  the  tendencies  and  conditions  of  man's  life  as  an 
animal,  and  refer  it  instead  to  the  greed  of  men,  and  the 
social  conventions  by  which  the  strong  have  obtained  the 


14  PHYSICAL  CONDITIONS  [ch. 

power  to  oppress  the  weak.^  Some  few  of  those  who  take 
this  view  may  hold  that  Christianity  is  essentially  antagon- 
istic to  the  existing  order,  and  that  it  will  give  approval  to 
their  programme  ;  ^  but  anarchists  generally  are  inclined  to 
think  that  Christianity  has  had  its  chance  and  has  failed ; 
they  regard  the  Christian  Church  as  an  institution  of 
society  which  has  been  on  the  side  of  the  oppressors  and 
which  must  be  destroyed.  They  are  inclined  to  pin  their 
faith  to  schemes  for  sweeping  changes,  with  a  light-hearted 
expectation  that  things  cannot  be  worse  and  may  be  better ; 
they  pay  little  attention  to  the  experience  of  the  past,  as 
they  hope  that  it  can  have  no  applicability  to  the  conditions 
of  the  new  era. 

There  are  also  Pessimists,  who  are  oppressed  by  the  sordid 
actualities  of  life,  and  regard  the  possibilities  of  ameliora- 
tion as  so  far  off  and  so  incalculable  that  they  may  be 
neglected  altogether.  Men  of  this  type,  who  are  comfort- 
ably off  themselves,  are  sometimes  inclined  to  close  their 
eyes  and  ears  to  the  trouble  around  them,  and  to  acquiesce 
in  it  as  inevitable.  They  may,  however,  feel  the  horror  of 
the  human  struggle  for  subsistence  intensely,  as  something 
that  seems  purposeless ;  and  they  refuse  to  attribute 
goodness  to  a  Creator  who  has  subjected  the  beings  He  has 
called  into  existence  to  such  an  ordeal.  Two  centuries 
ago.  Natural  Religion,  with  its  recognition  of  the  law  and 
order  among  the  heavenly  bodies,  appeared  to  be  so 
obviously  true,  that  it  seemed  to  afford  a  foundation  on 
which  the  structure  of  Revealed  Religion  could  be  based. 
But  nowadays  the  thought  of  Nature  is  in  many  minds  a 
serious  obstacle  to  a  belief  in  the  dominance  of  wisdom  and 
goodness  in  the  Universe.  Nature,  '  red  in  tooth  and  claw,' 
the  terrible  waste  of  animal  life,  the  degradation  of  human 
life  through  sordid  struggles  from  which  there  is  no  relief — 
these  are  things  which  alienate  some  men  from  any  religious 

»  Schnpoller,  Grutidriss  der  ailgemeinen  VolkswirtschaftsWire,  i.  176. 
*  See  biilow,  p.  208. 


l]  the  discipline  of  the  race  16 

belief,  and  tempt  them  to  withdraw  more  and  more  from 
contact  with  grim  reahties.  This  habit  of  mind  is  apt 
to  paralyse  any  ellorts  for  the  amehoration  of  mankind,  and 
tends  to  check  any  form  of  practical  philanthropy. 

There  is  another  mental  attitude  that  is  possible. 
Common  sense  inclines  us  to  expect  that  the  future  will  not 
be  utterl)^  and  entirely  different  from  the  past,  and  that 
human  life  will  continue  to  be  affected  by  the  tendencies 
which  dominate  over  all  merely  animal  life  On  the  other 
hand,  sanguine  temperaments  recognise  that  there  has  been 
improvement,  fitful  and  temporary  and  checkered,  but  yet 
real,  at  different  times  and  places ;  and  they  are  eager  to 
give  men  fresh  opportunities,  and  help  in  making  the  most 
of  them.  Persistent  courage  is  needed  to  enable  a  man 
to  face  social  problems  with  experience  dra\\'n  from  the 
past,  and  to  deepen  the  conviction  that  it  is  worth  while 
for  him  to  devote  himself  to  the  service  of  man  ;  but  those 
who  take  this  course  will  find  that  they  are  in  close  accord 
with  Christian  teaching.  Christianity  has  no  infallible 
nostrum  to  offer  apart  from  human  experience  and  effort ; 
but  it  makes  known  an  inexhaustible  source  of  inspiration 
and  courage  for  those  who  recognise  the  permanence  of  the 
existing  physical  conditions  of  human  life,  and  are  yet  eager 
to  set  themselves  to  use  the  experience  of  the  past  so  as  to 
make  the  most  of  the  possibilities  which  are  inherent  in  the 
nature  of  man.  It  is  possible  to  draw  on  inner  experience 
and  on  the  Christian  sense  of  duty  to  support  the  resolu- 
tions and  supplement  the  efforts  of  common  sense, 

(a)  Common  sense  recognises  that  a  discipline  of  the  race 
has  gone  on  during  the  past  ages,  and  that,  through  the 
struggle  for  subsistence,  Man  has  developed  new  powers  and 
accumulated  experience.  Necessity  has  been  the  mother  of 
invention;  but  it  has  been  such  a  dire  necessity,  and  so 
many  have  been  crushed  by  it,  that  to  religious  minds  the 
questions  arise — has  all  this  sordid  and  bitter  suffering 
had  an  adequate  result,  and  served  a  sufficient  purpose  ? 


16  PHYSICAL  CONDITIONS  [ch. 

can  it  be  Justified  ?    can  it  be  the  work  of  God,  and  per- 
mitted by  God  ?     The  same  sort  of  difficulty  pressed  on 
the  minds  of  holy  men  of  old  about  their  own  personal  lives. 
The  world  seemed  all  awry  to  them,  when  the  wicked 
enjoyed  such  prosperity,  and  the  servants  of  God  suffered 
so  severely.     The  Book  of  Job  deals  with  the  problem 
whether  God  could  be  thought  of  as  good  in  view  of  the 
injustice  of  the  world.     But  yet  when  they  went  into  the 
Temple  of  God,  they  saw  the  end  of  those  men,  and  they 
came  to  be  reassured  as  to  the  existence  and  triumph  of 
righteousness.     Some  of  them  could  look  back  on  the 
disappointments  and  miseries  of  their  own  lives,  and  feel, 
even  within  the  limits  of  the  mundane  sphere,  that  good 
had  been  brought  out  of  evil.     In  Christian  times,  with  the 
larger  view  of  human  life  and  the  clearer  understanding  of 
the  part  which  suffering  plays  in  the  redemption  of  man, 
it  has  been  less  difficult  for  saints  to  trace  God's  hand  in 
their  own  experience,  however  bitter.     Men  like  St.  Paul, 
who  have  found  that  all  the  trouble  and  disaster  they  en- 
dured personally,  was,  in  fact,  working  for  the  glory  of  God 
in  themselves  personally  and  in  the  world  around,  have  been 
able  to  cherish  a  hope  that  this  will  also  be  found  to  hold 
good  in  the  world  at  large.      The  apostle  looked  out  on 
animate  existence  and  interpreted  what  he  saw,  in  the  light 
of  what  he  had  himself  felt.     St.  Paul  saw  that  the  whole 
creation  groaneth  and  travaileth  in  pain  ;  he  could  not  tell 
how  this  was  to  be  set  right,  or  what  purpose  it  served  ;  but 
with  his  personal  experience  of  the  wisdom  and  goodness  of 
God  in  the  way  in  which  he  himself  had  been  led,  he  could 
cherish  a  confident  belief  for  the  justification  of  God's 
wisdom  and  goodness  in  the  Universe  at  large.     Personal 
Christian  belief  in  the  goodness  of  God  reinforces  the 
common-sense  opinion  that  there  is  a  purpose  in  the  strain 
and  stress  of  life,  and  that  Man  is  being  trained  to  rise  to 
higher  things.     Along  with  this  belief  in  the  divine  char- 
acter of  the  discipline  of  the  race  under  existing  conditions, 


1.3  WIDENING  OF  THE  SPHERE  OF  HOPE  17 

there  may  come  the  recognition  of  a  divine  element  in  all 
the  factors  through  which  this  discipline  is  carried  out. 
The  physical  conditions  under  which  Man  lives  can  be 
regarded  as  part  of  a  divine  order  ;  the  institutions  of 
society,  however  they  may  have  been  misused,  have  grown 
up  under  God's  providence  and  are  not  to  be  condemned  as 
merely  and  wholly  evil.  All  are  working  for  a  good  that 
lies  beyond  the  range  of  our  vision,  and  it  will  be  our 
wisdom  to  try  to  co-operate  in  their  working. 

(6)  Common  sense  recognises  the  fact  of  improvement  at 
different  times  and  places,  and  hopes  for  indefinite  progress  ; 
but  since  there  are  peoples  whose  life  has  become  stereo- 
tjrped,  and  others  whose  condition  is  degraded,  there  is  a 
temptation  to  limit  the  expectation  of  advance  to  certain 
peoples  of  mankind  or  to  certain  classes,  and  then  to 
stigmatise  all  others  as  hopeless  cases.  Cliristianity  comes 
in  to  enlarge  and  strengthen  our  hopes  for  the  whole  human 
race.  The  experiences  and  the  records  of  saints  in  all  ages 
go  to  show  that  the  Gospel  of  the  grace  of  God  has  a 
transforming  power,  and  that  it  can  reach  and  regenerate 
the  most  unworthy.  St,  Augustine  found  that  it  could 
deliver  him  from  subjection  to  his  passions;  and  the  mission 
work  of  the  Church,  in  penitentiaries  and  otherwise,  is 
evidence  that  it  has  not  lost  its  power  of  reaching  and 
rescuing  the  outcasts  of  society.  The  power  of  hoping  the 
best  for  the  whole  human  race,  even  when  the  eyes  are 
open  to  the  cruelty  and  savagery  of  man,  is  a  Christian 
grace,  which  widens  and  invigorates  the  most  sanguine 
expectations  we  can  form  from  a  mere  survey  of  the  progress 
of  the  world. 

(c)  Cluristian  faith  gives  a  firmer  basis  to  the  belief  in 
purpose  and  discipline  ;  Christian  hope  enlarges  ordinary 
anticipations  of  good  ;  and  Christian  charity  has  a  specific 
quality  of  its  own.  There  are  plenty  of  calls  for  philan- 
thropy of  every  sort.  We  recognise  that  in  the  progress  of 
the  world,  localities  may  suffer,  and  in  the  advance  of  the 

B 


18  PHYSICAL  CONDITIONS  [ch. 

race,  individuals  may  be  crushed.  But  even  though  we 
try  to  keep  the  happiness  of  the  greatest  number  in  the 
long  rim  in  view,  we  dare  not  forget  the  undying  worth  of 
each  individual  man  and  woman.  It  is  a  duty  of  philan- 
thropy to  try  to  diminish  their  suffering,  and  this  is  especi- 
ally incumbent  on  the  Christian  in  view  of  our  Lord's 
intei-pretation  of  duty  to  a  neighbour.  Any  philanthropic 
work  may  be  undertaken  from  a  Christian  motive,  and 
there  are  many  fellow-creatures  who  appeal  to  our  pity  as 
victims  of  sickness  or  as  oppressed  by  man.  The  march 
of  progress  is  relentless ;  it  is  useless  to  try  to  bolster  up  a 
decadent  industry  or  to  maintain  a  class  of  pauperised 
^A'orkers,  who  cannot  hold  their  own  independently.  Wise 
philanthropy  does  its  best  to  set  a  man  on  his  feet,  and  aims 
at  giving  him  such  fresh  opportunities  that  he  shall  be  able 
to  enter  the  battle  again,  so  that  he  may  lead  a  respon- 
sible life,  and  be  a  useful  member  of  society.  All  this  may 
be  done  from  Christian  motives  ;  but  Christian  charity 
has  a  different  aim  and  a  wider  application  than  organised 
philanthropy.  Its  chief  concern  is,  not  with  the  man's 
condition  but  with  his  character  :  the  aim  of  Christian 
charity  is  to  take  the  resentment  and  the  listlessness  out  of 
the  hearts  of  the  unfortunate.  The  scope  of  Christian 
charity  may  also  be  wider  than  that  of  mere  philanthropy. 
Worldly  wisdom  may  condemn  many  men  and  women  as 
hopeless  cases,  when  Christian  charity  is  inspired  to  give 
them  another  chance.  A  touch  of  personal  sympathy  will 
call  forth  the  best  in  human  disposition  and  character ; 
there  is  far  less  room  for  bitterness  or  recklessness  in  the 
mind  of  a  man  who  knows  that  a  friend  is  trying  to  bear  his 
burden.  The  giving  of  money  which  is  not  felt  to  be  an 
expression  of  real  sympathy  or  a  personal  sacrifice  may 
relieve  physical  suffering,  but  it  has  no  healing  influence  of 
its  own  ;  it  may  be  received  as  a  right,  and  prove  an 
encouragement  to  idleness.  Real  sympathy  with  and  self- 
sacrifice  for  the  sake  of  another — even  when  they  cannot  be 


I.]      RECONCILIATION  OF  INCONSISTENT  CLAIMS       19 

expressed  in  forms  that  give  relief  to  physical  suffering — 
are  the  qualities  that  bring  the  service  of  Man  into  closest 
resemblance  to  the  work  of  Christ. 


5.  Christian  Philosophy  of  Life 

(a)  By  taking  a  wider  and  deeper  view  than  that  of 
coiuinon  sense,  Cliristianity  can  claim  to  set  forth  a 
philosophy  of  life  which  helps  to  solve  the  apparent 
contradictions  that  seem  so  puzzling.  It  takes  account  of 
the  whole  of  life — of  inner  experience  as  well  as  of  the 
impressions  we  get  from  observing  the  course  of  affairs  : 
it  gauges  the  advantages  and  disadvantages  of  any  change 
by  their  effect  upon  the  inner  life  ;  this  standard  cannot  be 
applied  at  any  moment  with  precision,  but  it  is  less  mislead- 
ing than  any  external  standard,  for  it  offers  a  safeguard 
against  the  mistake  of  attaching  supreme  importance  to 
one  or  other  of  the  secondary  objects  which  men  set  before 
themselves,  and  are  inclined  to  follow  exclusively. 

Among  such  secondary  aims  are  the  ideals  of  good  order 
on  the  one  hand,  and  of  independence  on  the  other  ;  both 
are  good,  but  at  first  it  seems  that  they  are  irreconcilable, 
and  that  good  order  can  only  be  secured  by  crushing  in- 
dependence. But  this  is  not  so  ;  by  clie  cultivation  of  self- 
discipline  it  is  possible  to  combine  the  advantages  of  a  well- 
regulated  community  with  those  of  independence,  and  this 
is  the  Christian  conception  of  liberty. 

Again,  there  is  disagreement  between  those  who  wish  to 
realise  their  aims  at  once  and  those  who  look  to  the  future. 
The  prodigal  is  eager  for  leave  to  use  what  comes  to  hand 
as  he  chooses  now,  while  the  economic  man  would  have 
everything  utilised  with  reference  to  future  production. 
But  unless  a  man  has  opportunities  to  misuse,  he  cannot 
learn  to  put  things  to  their  best  use  :  the  boy  who  never 
goes  into  the  water  cannot  learn  to  swim.  In  attempting 
to  put  present  opportunities  to  their  best  purpose,  there  is 


aO  PHYSICAL  CONDITIONS  [ch, 

the  best  education  of  character,  and  the  formation  of  the 
sense  of  responsibility  is  a  grand  result,  even  if  it  is  attained 
by  some  apparent  waste  of  time  or  money. 

Once  more  there  is  a  recurring  difference  between  those 
who  think  of  the  greatest  happiness  of  the  greatest  number 
and  those  who  resent  the  sacrifice  of  individual  lives  for 
distant  and  impersonal  advantages.  Christian  charity 
strives  so  to  mollify  the  course  of  progress  that  it  shall  not 
ruin  or  degrade  individual  character.  We  need  some  living 
guidance  to  help  us  to  thread  our  way  among  the  respective 
claims  of  regularity  and  independence,  of  the  present  and 
the  future,  of  the  individual  and  the  mass ;  and  Christianity 
so  far  takes  account  of  each,  and  holds  the  balance  between 
them,  that  it  may  guard  us  against  the  danger  of  giving 
exaggerated  attention  to  any  of  these  objects. 

(6)  Christianity  may  also  claim  to  be  eminently  practical. 
The  elevation  of  human  character  is  of  supreme  importance 
for  keeping  the  pressure  of  external  conditions  from 
becoming  more  intense,  and  it  is  the  special  mission  of 
Christianity  to  deal  with  men — not  in  the  mass — but 
personally  and  individually.  The  characteristic  doctrine 
which  our  Lord  preached  was  the  truth  of  God's  fatherly 
care  over  each  one  of  his  creatures,  and  the  sacraments  give 
abiding  expression  to  the  fact  that  Christ's  promises  are 
pledged  to  each  single  member  of  the  Church  individually. 
And  so,  in  advocating  the  duties  of  personal  self-discipline 
and  personal  self-sacrifice,  Christianity  is  advocating  the 
most  effective  remedy  for  social  evils  of  every  kind,  and 
one  that  can  be  brought  into  play,  directly  and  immedi- 
ately, by  each  man  and  woman  within  a  larger  or  narrower 
circle.  The  Church  may  co-operate  with  the  State  in 
attempts  to  benefit  the  masses  ;  but  the  specific  work  of 
the  Church  is  that  of  moulding  personal  character  and 
influencing  personal  lives.  It  is  thus  that  Christian  influ- 
ence may  be  brought  to  bear  most  immediately,  so  as  to 
permeate  society  as  a  whole. 


II.]  THE  DEFECTS  OF  THE  LOWER  RACES  21 


CHAPTER  II 

RACIAL   DIFFERENCES 

1.  The  Defects  of  the  Lower  Races 

The  most  striking  contrasts  in  economic  condition  between 
various  parts  of  the  world  are  associated  with  differences 
of  race.  These  are  doubtless  cliiefly  due  to  the  conditions 
of  climate  and  soil ;  for  even  if  racial  differences  arise 
from  inherent  physical  or  mental  characteristics,  they  are 
rendered  more  marked  by  environment ;  certainly  they  are 
of  first-rate  importance.  There  are  white  men's  countries, 
where  the  white  races  can  live  and  perpetuate  themselves, 
and  be  at  their  best ;  there  are  other  regions  where  the 
white  races  deteriorate,  or  where  they  cannot  make 
permanent  homes  at  all,  while  the  black  races  flourish 
greatly.  The  differences  are  very  deep  seated  :  underneath 
the  veneer  of  Western  civilisation,  which  men  of  the  yellow 
and  black  races  can  readily  adopt,  the  natural  proclivities 
may  often  remain,  to  break  out  unexpectedly  when  occasion 
offers.  We  may  get  some  insight  into  the  special  tempera- 
ments and  habits  of  various  races  from  a  consideration  of 
the  manner  in  which  different  groups  of  men  have  carried 
on  the  struggle  for  existence.  At  first  sight  it  is  not 
perfectly  easy  to  justify  the  distinction  which  is  commonly 
drawn  between  the  higher  and  the  lower  races.  Taken  man 
for  man,  and  as  individuals,  the  noble  savage  is  likely  to  be 
a  much  more  efficient  animal  than  the  civilised  man.  His 
senses  are  keener,  and  his  powers  of  endurance  are  very 
great ;   he  has  many  kinds  of  highly  developed  skill.     But 


22  RACIAL  DIFFERENCES  [ch. 

even  when  all  this  is  taken  into  account,  we  feel  that  certain 
races  are  higher,  because  they  have  a  common  stock  of 
accumulated  experience  of  many  kinds,  and  each  individual 
can  diaw,  to  a  larger  or  smaller  extent,  on  this  heritage,  so 
as  to  enjoy  an  unearned  increment  in  addition  to  the  fruits 
of  his  personal  effort.  The  work  of  civilisation  has  been 
the  building  up  of  a  great  body  of  knowledge  and  of 
organised  activity  ;  the  civilised  man  is  able  to  dominate, 
not  because  of  his  qualities,  but  because  he  can  draw  upon 
the  resources  of  civilisation  and  bring  them  to  bear  on  the 
problem  that  confronts  him.  His  advantage  does  not  lie  in 
what  he  is  individually  ;  it  arises  from  the  fact  that  he  has 
had  the  privilege  of  entering  into  the  fruit  of  other  men's 
labours.  The  savage  is  inferior,  because  he  is  incapable  of 
contributing  to  or  participating  in  the  heritage  of  accumu- 
lated experience.  He  is  lacking  in  the  capacity  for  being 
organised.  In  spite  of  the  remarkable  acuteness  of  his 
senses,  he  has  defects  which  have  prevented  the  native  races 
of  Africa  and  America  from  building  up  such  civilisations  as 
flourished  in  the  ancient  world  and  as  are  maintained  by 
the  white  races  in  the  present  day. 

(a)  For  one  thing,  the  North  American  Indian  has  very 
little  power  of  accumulation  ;  he  practically  lives  from 
hand  to  mouth.  The  power  of  looking  forward  and  making 
preparations  for  emergencies  is  almost  wanting  altogether  ; 
it  seems  as  if  he  was  deficient  in  a  power  of  imagination,  and 
in  the  faculty  of  vividly  forecasting  circumstances  that  are 
bound  to  arise.  At  all  events,  the  primitive  communism 
which  exists  in  such  tribes  is  a  decided  obstacle  to  any 
accumulation.  It  is  difficult  for  all  alike  to  agree  upon 
providing  for  the  future,  or  entering  on  any  undertaking 
which  will  only  afterwards  become  useful — such  as  clearing 
ground  for  tillage  ;  and  any  one  man  who  sets  about  a  task 
of  the  kind  would  reap  but  little  advantage,  as  the  thriftless 
members  of  the  tribe  would  demand  and  obtain  a  share  of 
the  sustenance  which   any  tribesman  possessed.     Under 


11.]  LACK  OF  FORESIGHT  23 

these  circumstances  there  is  little  room  for  surprise  that 
there  should  be  so  much  recklessness  in  consuming  resources, 
and  that  the  power  of  accumulation  is  hardly  developed  at 
all ;  but  it  may  be  noted  that  this  defect,  while  it  interferes 
with  material  progress,  is  not  necessarily  either  vicious  or 
degraded.  The  determination  to  hang  together,  and  share 
and  share  alike,  is  in  itself  well  worthy  of  admiration ;  the 
great  poverty  of  these  peoples — and  of  some  of  the  Celtic 
folk  in  Scotland  and  Ireland  who  present  similar  traits — 
is  compatible  with  habitual  generosity  and  gracious 
manners.  But  whether  it  arises  from  their  virtues  or  their 
defects,  the  lack  of  the  habit  of  accumulation  accounts  to 
a  very  large  extent  for  their  failure  to  make  progress  in 
civilisation. 

This  is  one  of  the  great  landmarks  in  material  progress. 
When  the  power  of  accumulation  has  been  brought  into 
play,  and  reserves  of  wealth  exist,  the  community  is  re- 
lieved from  the  worst  of  anxieties,  as  they  have  the  means  of 
tiding  over  a  bad  season  without  serious  distress.  But  the 
possession  of  reserve  supplies  opens  up  fresh  opportunities 
of  advance,  and  it  is  one  of  the  outward  and  visible  signs  of 
a  prosperous  community.  It  is  possible  to  commence  great 
undertakings — such  as  the  making  of  roads  and  embanking 
against  the  sea — which  are  carried  on  for  a  succession  of 
years  ;  and  it  is  also  possible  to  provide  implements  which 
render  labour  more  effective,  or  to  introduce  permanent 
improvements  of  a  labour-saving  character.  The  substitu- 
tion of  a  bridge  for  a  ferry,  or  of  a  stone  or  iron  bridge  for 
one  of  wood,  provides  a  more  lasting  advantage  to  the 
community,  but  such  works  cannot  be  undertaken  unless 
an  accumulation  of  wealth  is  available  for  the  purpose. 
The  laying  down  of  roads  and  railways,  the  introduction  of 
machinery  of  every  kind,  and  the  advantages  in  the  way 
of  labour-saving  which  follow,  all  serve  to  illustrate  the 
importance  of  the  accumulation  of  wealth  in  the  community, 
since  none  of  these  things  can  be  available  when  everv  one 


24  KACIAL  DIFFERENCES  [ch. 

lives  from  hand  to  mouth.  It  is  hardly  necessary  to  add 
that,  under  these  circumstances,  there  is  little  likelihood  of 
progress  in  science  or  literature  or  art.  Opportunities  for 
leisure  are  apt  to  be  frittered  away  in  idleness,  unless  there 
is  some  stimulus  to  employ  them  wisely. 

{b)  Another  defect  which  seriously  interferes  with 
material  progress  is  the  difficulty  which  some  tribes  have 
of  taking  regularly  and  systematically  to  the  practice  of 
exchange.  The  Indians  on  the  Oneida  Reservation  have 
difficulty  in  understanding  a  medium  of  exchange  :  one  of 
them  may  have  got  a  ball  of  wax,  which  he  wishes  to  ex- 
change for  a  blanket,  and  he  tries  to  find  a  dealer  who  owns 
a  blanket  and  will  take  his  wax  for  it ;  he  does  not  sell  the 
wax  for  money  and  buy  the  blanket  with  the  proceeds. 
So  long  as  this  sort  of  direct  barter  goes  on,  there  can  be  no 
accurate  adjustment  of  the  bargain  ;  it  is  only  when  an 
easily  divisible  medium  is  avaOable  that  there  can  be  a 
measure  of  value  which  is  approximately  correct  at  the 
time.  Exchange  will  hardly  be  a  part  of  the  ordinary  life 
of  a  community  unless  there  is  some  recognised  medium 
for  buying  and  selling  ;  and,  without  habitual  and  constant 
exchange,  division  of  labour  cannot  be  carried  very  far. 
It  is  needless  to  insist  on  the  importance  of  this  principle 
in  bringing  about  the  organisation  of  labour,  and  the 
specialisation  of  function,  so  as  to  secure  the  largest 
possible  production  at  the  smallest  outlay.  Habitual 
exchange  is  involved  in  the  whole  structure  of  any  com- 
munity which  can  manage  to  provide  expert  training  for 
engineers  or  doctors.  The  growth  of  science  and  the  arts 
has  not,  so  far  as  we  see,  been  possible  in  communities 
where  there  was  no  room  for  specialisation  of  function, 
because  the  use  of  money  and  systematic  reliance  on 
exchange  had  not  come  into  vogue. 

(c)  These  defects  in  the  habits  of  primitive  peoples  suffice 
to  account  for  their  having  made  so  little  progress  in  material 
wealth  and  in  civilisation.    It  is  not  too  much  to  say  that 


n.]  THE  POWER  OF  ACCUMULATION  25 

the  power  of  accumulation  and  the  practice  of  exchange 
have  been  essential  to  the  existence  of  highly  organised 
society,  and  that  without  them  it  could  neither  have  come 
into  being  nor  be  maintained.  Hence  it  is  not  a  little 
remarkable  that  these  are  the  very  features  which  have 
been  specially  attacked,  either  explicitly  or  by  implication, 
by  Karl  Marx  and  his  school.  They  are  enthusiasts  for 
creating  a  highly  organised  and  complex  society  ;  but  they 
discard  the  conditions  which  have  been  pre-supposed  in 
all  civilisation  as  we  know  it.  They  hold  that  the  accumula- 
tion of  wealth  by  private  persons  is  injurious,  that  Capital 
is  the  enemy,  and  that  all  the  evils  of  our  present  system 
are  due  to  the  tyranny  which  the  owners  of  capital  are 
able  to  exercise.  '  That  capital  must  be  destroyed  before 
any  thorough  reorganisation  can  take  place  is,'  according 
to  Mr.  Hyndman,  '  certain.'  ^  In  order  that  capital  may  be 
prevented  from  rising  into  power  again,  after  being  once 
swept  away,  the  opportunities  and  facilities  which  en- 
courage the  growth  of  capital  must  be  checked.  The 
existence  of  coined  money,  as  a  medium  of  exchange, 
supplies  a  material  which  is  readily  available  for  hoarding, 
and,  according  to  Marx,  it  seems  necessary  that  money 
should  be  abolished,  in  order  to  leave  no  room  for  the  passion 
for  gold.2  Similarly,  the  existence  of  the  family  as  an  insti- 
tution, the  love  of  offspring,  and  the  desire  to  perpetuate 
a  name  have  done  much  to  foster  the  desire  of  accumulating 
both  money  and  lands  in  private  hands ;  and  Mr.  Wells  insists 
that  '  the  family  of  the  private  individual  must  vanish '  ^ 
in  the  reorganised  society  of  the  future.  It  is  quite  likely 
that,  in  this  way,  the  desire  of  accumulating  in  private  hands 
would  be  rooted  out ;  but  it  is  not  clear  that  the  function 
which  private  accumulation  has  served  in  organised  society 
could  be  replaced  by  collective  foresight  and  corporate 

1  Hj'ndman,  Economics  of  Socialism,  p.  247. 

■  Das  Capital,  p.  113. 

•  Wells,  Socialism  and  thi  Family,  p.  30. 


S6  RACIAL  DIFFERENCES  [ch. 

accumulation.  Public  capital  would  be  required  to  main- 
tain existing  works  of  every  kind,  as  well  as  to  make  any 
progress  ;  and  such  capital  could  only  be  formed  through 
the  authoritative  determination  of  the  Government,  not 
by  the  voluntary  action  of  free  citizens.^  To  many  persons 
the  whole  of  this  scheme  seems  dangerous  in  its  method  and 
retrograde  in  its  probable  results.  The  desire  of  accumula- 
tion and  the  facilities  for  exchange  have  been  so  intimately 
connected  with  the  growth  of  organised  society  that  it 
may  not  be  possible  to  remove  them  and  to  retain  any 
organised  society  at  all.  Mr.  Hjoidman  fails  to  show  that 
'  a  destruction  of  the  great  means  and  instruments  of 
making  and  distributing  wealth '  ^  would  not  be  involved 
in  the  abolition  of  capital.  In  the  later  Roman  Empire, 
where  private  capital  became  an  object  of  attack,  the  entire 
destruction  of  society  followed,  with  a  deterioration  in  the 
arts  of  life,  and  an  increase  of  miseiy  and  drudgery.  So 
long  as  there  were  rich  men  to  be  plundered  ^  it  was  possible 
for  the  Roman  Emperors  to  maintain  the  roads  and  other 
great  public  works  ;  but  after  the  barbarian  invasions, 
when  there  were  no  private  accumulations  to  be  drawn  upon, 
these  fell  into  decay.  Our  system  of  production  is  more 
sensitive  to  attack,  since  labour-saving  machinery  calls  for 
rapid  replacement ;  and  if  the  productive  power  of  the 
community  were  reduced,  opportunities  for  enjoying  leisure 
and  pursuing  culture  of  any  sort  could  not  be  maintained. 
I^  private  capital  is  to  be  regarded  as  the  enemy,  and  the 
individual  power  of  accumulation  is  checked,  the  com- 
munity as  a  whole  is  likely  to  decay  in  material  prosperity, 
as  the  Roman  Empire  decayed.  Even  if  the  growth  of 
capital  can  be  secured  authoritatively  instead  of  volun- 
tarily, there  would  be  a  danger  that  the  prevailing  type  of 
individual  character  would  be  lowered,  in  a  community 
where   opportunities   and   responsibilities  were   so   much 

1  S«e  above,  p.  11.  *  Hyndman,  Economics  of  Socialiam,  p.  248. 

*  £$My  on  Wettem  Civilisation,  i.  p.  183. 


n.]        INTER-RACIAL  STRUGGLE  FOR  EXISTENCE         27 

curtailed.^  It  is  unlikely  that  we  can  have  things  both  ways, 
and  retain  all  the  advantages  of  organised  society,  while  we 
stamp  out  the  factors  which  have  brought  it  into  being. 
When  we  consider  the  condition  of  lands  where  the  desire 
of  accumulation  has  never  been  brought  into  play,  and  the 
state  of  families  in  England  which  are  given  over  to  im- 
providence, we  may  hesitate  as  to  the  Avisdom  of  trying  to 
destroy  the  desire  of  accumulation  where  it  at  present 
exists.  It  is  surely  wiser  to  recognise  that  this  desire  is  a 
great  economic  force,  and  to  set  about  directing  it,  and 
trj'ing  to  correct  and  restrain  its  operation  where  that 
proves  mischievous.^ 

2.  The  Inter-Racial  Struggle  for  Existence 

The  struggle  for  existence,  which  arises  from  the  pressure 
of  population  on  the  means  of  subsistence,  has  not  been 
carried  on  in  bygone  days  as  a  wholly  unorganised  war  of  all 
with  all,  such  as  is  figured  in  Hobbes's  Slate  of  Nature. 
Mankind  has  been  grouped  in  clearly  marked  regiments  and 
armies  ;  tribe  has  warred  against  tribe,  and  race  against 
race.  Difficulties  in  regard  to  the  means  of  subsistence 
have  had  much  to  do  with  the  constant  occurrence  of  savage 
war  in  Africa  and  among  North  American  Indians,  and  the 
most  striking  race  conflicts  which  occurred  in  European 
history  were  probably  due  to  similar  causes.  But  in  what- 
ever circumstances  they  may  have  taken  their  rise,  the 
results  of  the  barbarian  invasions  illustrate  the  fact  that  in 
racial  conflicts  the  battle  is  not  always  to  the  strong  ; — 
Goths,  Vandals,  Huns,  Lombards,  and  Franks  swept  in  turn 
over  parts  of  the  area  of  Roman  civilisation,  and  in  this 
great  contest  some  races  survived  and  continued,  while 
others  died  out  and  disappeared.  It  is  worth  while  to  try 
and  detect  the  secret  of  racial  vitality  in  the. struggle  for 
existence,  and  to  specify  the  qualities  whieli  render  one 
»  Sm  above,  p.  12.  «  See  below,  pp.  88,  96. 


28  RACIAL  DIFFERENCES  [«h. 

race  of  man  fit  to  survive  in  the  contest,  while  another  is 
crushed  out  and  disappears. 

(a)  The  power  of  self- adaptation  to  changed  conditions 
seems  to  be  of  supreme  importance  in  this  connection.  The 
invading  barbarians  were  of  migratory  or  semi-migratory 
habits,  and  as  they  showed  themselves  victorious  they  were 
called  upon  to  adapt  themselves  to  the  conditions  of  settled 
life.  But  the  circumstances  under  which  they  made  this 
attempt  were  much  affected  by  the  strenuousness  of  the 
opposition  which  they  encountered  in  different  regions.  In 
Spain  and  Italy  and  Gaul,  the  invaders  could  establish 
themselves  as  lords  over  conquered  inhabitants  ;  but  in 
England,  where  the  Romanised  Britons  were  loath  to  submit 
to  the  invaders,  the  Teutonic  army  was  compelled  to  settle 
down  to  work  upon  the  conquered  soil.  In  the  areas  which 
they  conquered  most  easily,  the  barbarians  failed  to  root 
themselves  deeply,  and  the  Latin  races  were  able  to  reassert 
their  predominance.  On  the  other  hand,  the  barbarians 
were  able  to  adapt  themselves  to  the  conditions  of  settled 
life,  and  to  cultivate  the  arts  of  peace  in  such  a  fashion  that 
they  could  hold  their  ground,  in  those  regions  where  the 
struggle  had  been  most  severe,  and  the  Roman  institutions 
had  been  practically  swept  away.  At  a  later  time,  it  is 
noticeable  how  the  peoples  of  the  north,  who  had  shown 
such  energy  in  the  arts  of  war,  and  proved  for  a  time  the 
scourge  of  Western  Europe,  were  unable  to  maintain  their 
predominance  when  they  adopted  a  new  religion  and 
discarded  their  militant  life.  Their  vigour  did  not  at  once 
find  a  new  direction  under  the  changed  conditions.  Some 
races  seem  almost  to  have  lost  the  power  of  adapting  them- 
selves to  new  conditions.  People  who  have  long  enjoyed 
a  high  civilisation,  which  has  continued  to  exist  for  ages 
and  has  given  rise  to  elaborate  institutions,  are  unwilling 
to  cast  theii*  racial  traditions  aside,  and  to  modify  their 
habits  of  life  in  accordance  with  changed  circumstances. 
The  Hindu  and  the  Chinaman  are  much  less  susceptible  of 


II.]  MAINTENANCE  OF  NUMBERS  29 

new  ideas,  and  much  less  ready  to  accept  new  modes  of 
work,  than  the  races  who  have  httle  organisation  of  their 
own,  and  who  are  wilhng  to  take  their  places  as  hewers  of 
wood  and  drawers  of  water  in  a  newly  created  community. 
But  unless  a  people  has  some  power  of  adapting  itself,  it 
must  disappear  before  the  march  of  progress.  The  con- 
ditions of  human  life  are  not  permanent  anywhere  ;  they 
alter  from  age  to  age  ;  and  races  which  cannot  alter  with 
them  are  bound  to  disappear.  Regions,  both  in  Assyria 
and  in  Central  America,  which  were  once  occupied  by 
vigorous  populations,  and  which  were  the  centres  of  active 
life,  are  desolate  and  barren  ;  and  the  peoples  who  in- 
habited them  have  left  no  Hving  tradition,  but  are  only 
known  to  us  by  the  relics  that  survive. 

(b)  Another  important  advantage  in  the  contest  is  con- 
nected with  the  virility  of  a  race,  and  this  is  at  all  events 
closely  associated  with  the  tone  of  morality  which  prevails. 
Different  experiments  in  family  life — polygamy,  poly- 
andry, and  the  like — have  been  tried  among  different 
peoples  and  discarded.  The  monogamous  family  appears 
to  afford  the  most  healthy  conditions  for  the  upbringing  of 
children ;  and  the  races  which  have  adopted  it  and  en- 
forced it  under  legal,  social,  or  religious  sanctions,  have 
succeeded  in  keeping  their  hold  on  the  regions  where  they 
have  settled,  and  have  perpetuated  themselves  as  powers  in 
the  world.  On  the  other  hand,  irregular  self-indulgence  is 
the  sign  of  a  decadent  race  ;  deliberate  refusal  to  undertake 
the  responsibilities  and  cares  of  family  life  may  become  a 
source  of  weakness,  and  lead  to  the  extinction  of  some  racial 
element  in  a  community.  These  seem  to  be  the  principal 
causes  of  the  decay  and  disappearance  of  races  that  were 
formerly  powerful,  but  have  long  since  ceased  to  exercise 
much  influence  in  the  world  ;  and  such  symptoms  must  be 
taken  into  account  in  any  attempt  to  forecast  the  future 
of  races  in  the  present  day.  With  regard  to  the  struggle  for 
existence  as  it  occurs  among  mankind,  it  is  to  be  noticed 


30  RACIAL  DIFFERENCES  [cH. 

that  while  the  pressure  has  of  course  been  felt  by  individuals 
in  each  race,  the  result  has  shown  itself,  not  so  much  directly 
and  in  the  increase  of  individual  capacity,  but  rather  in  the 
establishment  of  the  superiority  and  dominance  of  one  race 
or  another. 


3.  The.  Contact  of  two  Races  on  the  same  Soil 

During  the  last  three  centuries  the  problems  connected 
with  race  have  come  into  new  prominence,  owing  to  the 
facilities  for  inter-communication  between  distant  regions 
which  were  opened  up  in  the  fifteenth  century  and  which 
have  been  so  extraordinarily  increased  in  recent  times. 
Throughout  the  Middle  Ages  the  various  races  of  mankind 
were  each,  for  practical  purposes,  confined  to  a  particular 
continent  or  region,  and  only  came  into  occasional  conflict 
with  one  another.  The  Chinaman  and  the  Hindu,  the 
African  and  the  North  American  Indian,  had  no  relations 
with  the  peoples  of  Europe,  and  the  journeys  of  some 
travellers,  such  as  Marco  Polo,  were  but  rare  exceptions  to 
the  rule.  So  far  as  Europeans  were  engaged  in  a  struggle 
with  men  of  other  race,  they  formed  the  long  line  of  the 
battle  between  the  Crescent  and  the  Cross  ;  Islam  presented 
a  great  barrier  which  stood  between  Europe  and  Asiatic 
or  African  peoples,  and  this  proved  for  centuries  to  be 
almost  as  impassable  as  the  Atlantic.  Despite  wars  of 
consolidation  and  of  aggression,  the  peoples  of  the  European 
countries  kept  on  the  whole  to  their  own  lands,  though  the 
Scot  was  a  noted  exception.^  In  mediaeval  as  in  ancient 
times,  when  different  races  occupied  the  same  soil,  the  pride 
of  race  or  of  conquest  served  to  define  the  relative  positions 
of  the  two  peoples,  so  that  superiority  and  inferiority 
became  an  accepted  fact,  and  there  was  very  little  friction, 
comparatively  speaking,  within  the  community.  But  the 
progress  of  maritime  discovery  and  the  organisation  of 
1  Dante,  P<urad.,  xix.  121. 


11.]  COMPETITION  FOR  LAND  31 

oceanic  communication  have  entirely  changed  the  situation. 
The  flank  of  the  Mahometan  races  was  turned  by  the 
Portuguese,  and  Europeans  established  themselves  as 
traders  in  the  countries  of  the  East ;  when  they  also 
succeeded  in  overthrowing  the  ancient  civilisations  of 
America,  and  in  bringing  the  sources  of  mineral  wealth 
under  their  control,  the  difficulty  of  obtaining  sufficient 
labour  for  extractive  industry  led  to  the  transportation  of 
numbers  of  negroes  to  the  New  World.  As  the  colonisation 
of  distant  regions  has  proceeded,  and  Europeans  have 
attempted  to  develop  the  resources  of  distant  countries, 
there  has  been  a  series  of  movements  which  has  brought  two 
or  more  distant  races  into  close  contact  on  the  same  soil. 
The  mutual  knowledge  that  has  thus  arisen  has  not  always 
led  to  friendly  relations  ;  incompatibilities  of  temperament 
and  racial  jealousies  have  made  themselves  felt  during 
recent  times  in  a  way  that  was  unknown  in  the  ancient  and 
mediaeval  world. 

(a)  A  chief  and  recurring  difficulty  has  been  felt  in 
regard  to  the  possession  of  land.  Tribes  which  lived  by 
hunting  or  by  pastoral  pursuits  do  not  make  the  fullest  use 
of  land  that  is  fit  for  arable  cultivation.  The  needs  of  the 
world  as  a  whole  seem  to  give  us  a  standard  as  to  the 
maimer  in  which  each  part  of  the  world's  surface  may  be 
most  fitly  employed.  It  is  at  least  plausible  to  argue  that 
all  land  ought  to  be  used  in  the  fashion  in  which  it  can 
contribute  best  to  the  wants  of  the  world,  and  that  no  one, 
not  even  a  black  man,  has  a  right,  for  the  sake  of  his  own 
tastes  and  preferences,  to  divert  it  to  a  less  productive  use 
or  to  keep  it  relatively  idle.  This  principle,  whether  sound 
or  not,  seems  to  be  assumed  by  land  reformers  at  home,  and 
it  is  one  that  has  commended  itself  to  white  settlers  all  over 
the  world.  They  have  failed  to  recognise  the  right  of 
native  races  to  wasteful  occupation  of  valuable  territory. 
The  white  races,  both  in  America,  Africa,  and  New  Zealand, 
have  been  guilty  of  great  high-handedness  in  giving  effect 


3S  RACIAL  DIFFERENCES  [cH. 

to  this  principle,  but  it  is  at  least  to  be  remembered  that 
there  have  been  many  cases  where  they  have  endeavoured  to 
behave  fairly,  and  where  trouble  has  arisen  through  the 
failure  to  understand  native  law  ^  and  commercial  posses- 
sion. The  settler  who  had  bought  out  one  occupier,  and 
imagined  he  had  obtained  the  right  to  exclusive  use, 
resented  the  intrusion  of  other  natives  whose  interest  in 
the  land  had,  through  ignorance  and  inadvertence,  not  been 
taken  into  account  at  the  time  of  purchase ;  mutual 
recrimination  has  given  occasion  to  savage  attack,  which 
has  been  met  in  turn  by  ruthless  punishment.  As  new 
countries  have  been  occupied  by  white  men,  the  native 
races  have  been  crowded  out,  through  the  constant  en- 
croachments of  civilisation.  The  limitations  imposed  upon 
them  have  rendered  it  impossible  for  black  men  or  red  men 
to  obtain  the  means  of  subsistence  in  accordance  with  their 
traditional  modes  of  life,  by  hunting,  pasturage,  or  primitive 
cultivation  ;  and  the  degradation  and  extinction  of  the 
native  races  has  ensued.  Some  few  have  been  able  to 
survive,  with  a  position  and  status  that  is  wholly  anoma- 
lous ;  they  are  only  too  likely  to  have  lost  the  best  features 
of  their  own  race,  in  the  effort  to  adapt  themselves  to  be 
parts  of  a  community  which  furnishes  its  quota  to  and 
receives  resources  from  the  commerce  of  the  great  world. 
(&)  Even  greater  difficulties  have  arisen  with  regard  to 
labour.  In  the  conditions  of  tropical  countries,  the  arduous 
labour  connected  with  mining  or  with  cultivating  the  soil 
can  be  undertaken  on  much  cheaper  terms  by  black  men, 
whose  standard  of  comfort  is  low  and  who  do  not  find  the 
climate  specially  trying.  There  has  been  a  temptation  in 
all  ages  for  a  dominant  race  to  procure  this  labour  under 
compulsion.  The  mines  and  the  public  works  of  Egypt 
appear  to  have  been  the  occasion  of  terrible  oppression ; 

1  Many  of  those  who  have  little  sympathy  with  the  main  work  of  Christian 
missionaries  would  recognise  the  admirable  help  they  have  given  in  the 
nnderstanding  of  native  custom  and  >isage. 


n.]  THE  DEMAND  FOR  NATIVE  LABOUR  33 

and  some  system  of  slave  labour,  or  of  forced  labour,  is 
likely  to  be  in  vogue  wherever  those  who  are  developing  a 
jountry  depend  for  the  actual  work  upon  a  native  popula- 
tion. Slave  labour  is  unwilling  and  costly,  as  involving 
much  supervision  :  there  is  a  distinct  advantage  when  work 
can  be  assigned  to  free  labourers  who  are  stmiulated  by  the 
hope  of  reward.  But  among  savage  peoples  the  hope  of 
reward  furnishes  a  somewhat  fitful  stimulus  that  cannot  be 
counted  upon  to  ensure  regular  and  long-continued  work. 
If  high  wages  are  given  to  attract  men,  they  are  enabled 
to  obtain  what  they  regard  as  affluence  very  quickly,  and 
then  to  enjoy  a  protracted  period  of  idleness.  Under  these 
circumstances,  there  are  very  great  advantages  in  the 
system  of  indentured  labour.  A  contract  is  made  for  a 
period  of  time,  and  payment  is  deferred  till  the  time  is 
completed  ;  the  master  can  count  on  labour  for  a  definite 
and  extended  period,  and  the  labourer  finds  himself  in 
possession  of  a  substantial  reward,  and  with  the  opportunity 
of  improving  his  position  when  the  term  of  service  has  come 
to  an  end.  Where  long  contracts  are  made  with  natives 
of  the  country,  it  is  often  necessary  that  the  men  should 
be  kept  in  closed  compounds,  like  those  of  the  De  Beers 
Company  at  Kimberley  ;  as  they  are  always  apt  to  break 
the  contract,  and  to  escape  from  the  monotony  of  labour  to 
their  own  homes.  But  with  labour  imported  from  a  dis- 
tance this  difficulty  does  not  occur  :  the  homes  of  the  Indian 
coolies  who  are  employed  in  British  Guiana  ^  are  so  far 
distant  that  there  is  no  temptation  to  attempt  to  return  to 
them  before  the  contract  is  up,  and  the  coolies  can,  in 
consequence,  be  left  to  enjoy  practical  freedom  in  open 
compounds  or  scattered  villages.  It  is  comparatively  easy 
to  organise  such  Government  supervision  that  the  coolie 
immigrants  shall  be  properly  treated,  and  at  the  expiration 
of  the  contract  each  man  is  free  either  to  return  home,  or 
to  settle  in  the  country  where  he  has  been  working.    In 

1  Alleyne  Ireland,  Tropical  Colonisation,  p.  191. 
C 


34  RACIAL  DIFFERENCES  [OH. 

either  case  the  accumulated  payment  will  enable  him  to 
make  a  better  start  on  his  own  account  than  he  could  ever 
have  done  if  he  had  stayed  at  home.  There  seems  to  be 
more  prospect  of  reaching  a  satisfactory  solution  of  the 
labour  problem  in  some  such  fashion,  than  of  finding  any 
means  of  reconciling  the  claims  of  two  different  races  to  the 
use  of  the  same  land. 


4.  The  Persistence  of  Racial  Distinctions 

The  contact  of  two  very  different  races  on  the  same  soil 
cannot  fail  to  have  some  effect  on  the  characters  of  each. 
In  many  households  and  plantations  in  Virginia  and 
throughout  the  South,  the  dependence  of  the  black  on  the 
white  called  forth  a  sense  of  responsibility  and  solicitude 
on  the  part  of  the  masters  which  was  repaid  by  the  devoted 
affection  of  their  slaves.  But  none  the  less,  the  influence 
of  slavery  as  an  institution  has  been,  on  the  whole,  injurious 
to  the  character  of  the  slaves  and  of  the  masters  as  well, 
and  herein  lie  the  real  grounds  for  condemning  it.  The 
masters  are  in  danger  of  becoming  more  domineering  and 
tyrannical,  the  slaves  of  sinking  into  a  condition  of  helpless 
lethargy.  WTiere  the  division  of  race  coincides  with  a 
recognised  difference  of  status,  an  inseparable  barrier  is 
erected  between  the  black  and  the  white ;  but  it  seems 
possible  to  hope  that  under  other  conditions  this  need  not 
be  so.  The  imitative  faculty  is  very  strong  ;  and  the 
lower  race  may  easily  adopt  many  of  the  habits  and  prac- 
tices of  their  social  superiors,  while  the  influence  of  a  similar 
education  may  also  tend  to  reduce  the  differences  further 
and  further  in  each  successive  generation.  From  this 
point  of  view,  it  appears  that  assimilation  may  go  on  so 
rapidly  that,  after  a  comparatively  short  time,  racial 
distiactions  would  cease  to  have  much  importance  and  could 
be  ignored. 

It  may  be  noticed  in  this  connection  that  a  process  of 


II.]  AMALGAMATION  AND  ASSIMILATION  35 

assimilation  is  not  likely  to  be  entirely  one-sided.  If  the 
higher  race  at  times  exercises  an  attractive  inJBuence  over 
the  lower,  there  are  cases  where  those  who  deemed  them- 
selves stronger  and  more  advanced  have  been  absorbed 
by  the  people  among  whom  they  settled.  Both  in  the 
time  of  Henry  ii.  and  in  that  of  Cromwell,  soldiers  were 
planted  on  estates  in  Ireland  with  the  view  of  anglicising 
that  country,  but  their  descendants  have,  in  many  cases, 
come  to  be  merged  in  habit  and  feeling  with  those  among 
whom  they  settled.  It  has  been  the  revenge  of  the  con- 
quered people.  If  the  higher  race  is  to  exercise  its  full 
influence  in  elevating  a  subject  people  to  its  own  lerel,  there 
must  be  no  inter-marriage  or  amalgamation,  as  this  results 
in  the  blending  of  the  two. 

(a)  Whether  this  process  of  fusion  is  beneficial  or  not, 
there  is  no  reason  to  apprehend  that  assimilation  and 
amalgamation  are  proceeding  very  fast,  and  that  differences 
of  race  are  at  all  likely  to  be  suppressed  in  the  near  future, 
so  that  they  need  not  be  taken  into  account  in  the  world  at 
large.  Even  in  the  area  of  the  United  States  of  America, 
where  a  deliberate  attempt  has  been  made  to  avoid  any 
formal  recognition  of  racial  distinctions,  they  continue  to 
be  very  marked.  The  Constitution  of  the  United  States 
recognises  the  rights  of  man  as  man  ;  and  the  political 
system  of  the  country  has  been  framed  on  such  lines  that 
it  might  be  possible  for  men  of  all  nations,  peoples,  and 
languages  to  take  their  part  in  directing  the  system.  But 
though  racial  differences  have  been  left  out  of  sight,  they 
have  not  been  really  suppressed,  and  they  are  constantly 
reasserting  themselves.  There  is  a  black  belt  where  the 
negro  population  is  very  large.  The  horror  felt  throughout 
the  South,  of  the  vigorous  animal  passions  of  the  black, 
is  symptomatic  of  a  constant  anxiety,  and  of  a  dread  of 
the  results  which  would  ensue  if  white  dominance  were 
seriously  disputed.  But  apart  from  the  colour  question 
altogether,  the  minor  differences  of  race  preserve  them- 


36  RACIAL  DIFFERENCES  [ch. 

selves  to  some  extent.  Numerous  immigrants  arrive  each 
year  from  all  parts  of  Europe  ;  and  although  it  is  the  pride  ' 
of  the  American  that  these  extraneous  elements  are  rapidly 
assimilated,  their  existence  as  distinct  factors  in  the 
community  is  not  altogether  lost.  There  are  considerable 
districts  where  the  political  power  is  in  German,  Irish,  or 
Italian  hands  ;  iand  racial  affinities  are  so  far  preserved  as 
to  give  occasional  rise  to  incidents  that  have  an  inter- 
national bearing.^  It  has  even  been  remarked  that  a  racial 
stratification  can  be  traced  through  the  whole  system. 
The  representatives  of  the  oldest  settlers  of  the  English  race 
have,  on  the  whole,  kept  their  position  at  the  top,  and  form 
some  fifteen  millions  out  of  the  population  of  seventy-five 
millions.  Next  in  importance  and  activity  are  the  Germans, 
with  an  occasional  Jewish  strain,  the  Irish,  and  the  Swedes  ; 
and  then  the  Latin  races  and  the  various  forms  of  coloured 
population.  It  is  not  clear  that  these  racial  layers  are 
likely  to  preserve  their  relative  importance  ;  the  population 
of  English  extraction  does  not  multiply  so  rapidly  as  the 
races  with  a  different  standard  of  comfort.  The  elements 
ot  which  American  society  consists  are  gradually  changing 
their  relative  proportions,  and  it  is  at  least  possible  that 
through  these  modifications  the  economic,  moral,  and 
political  condition  of  the  country  may  be  greatly  affected. 
Even  in  such  a  country  as  the  United  States,  racial  distinc- 
tions are  extraordinarily  persistent,  and  it  is  futile  to 
attempt  to  ignore  them  altogether. 

(h)  The  British  Empire  has  grown  up  in  very  different 
conditions  and  under  the  influence  of  other  ideas  ;  con- 
siderable care  has  been  taken  to  recognise  racial  distinc- 
tions, and  assimilation  and  amalgamation  have  never  been 
regarded  as  an  ideal  to  be  aimed  at.  British  sentiment 
on  this  subject  was  determined  when  the  British  Empire 
was  still  being  planted  and  only  begiiming  to  grow.     The 

1  Among  these  may  be  mentioned  the  Fenian  raid  on  Canada,  and  the 
];Iackmailiiig  organised  by  the  Italian  Mafia. 


II.]  ECONOMIC  COSMOPOLITANISM  37 

parlianiontary  union  of  England  and  .Sc(jtland  marks  a 
cons(;ioUrt  abandonment  of  the  attempts  \vhi(;h  had  hitherto 
been  in  vogue  for  bringing  about  the  assimilation  of  all  the 
subjects  of  the  Crown  to  one  particular  type.  The  Parlia- 
ment of  Great  Britain  has  recognised  a  Scottish  national 
life,  which  is  distinct  in  law  and  religion  from  that  of 
England.  As  the  British  Empire  has  grown,  there  has  been 
an  increasing  readiness  to  give  free  play  to  the  maintenance 
of  separate  national  or  tribal  traditions  within  the  Empire. 
There  has  been  a  constant  and  serious  attempt  to  under- 
stand and  administer  the  native  law  and  custom  of  different 
subject  peoples.  Care  has  been  taken,  as  far  as  possible,  to 
maintain  existing  institutions  in  old  countries,  and  in  newly 
settled  areas  encouragement  has  been  given,  from  the 
time  of  Lord  Durham  onwards,^  to  the  growth  of  colonial 
nationalism.  English  statesmanship  has  aimed  at  giving 
scope  for  the  development  of  many  different  types,  not  at 
forcing  all  to  adopt  the  same  model.  The  builders  of  the 
British  Empire  have  had  in  view  the  preservation  of  the 
institutions  of  many  different  races  and  peoples  within  the 
limits  of  one  political  system. 

The  cosmopolitan,  who  is  detached  from  any  one  country 
and  poses  as  a  citizen  of  the  world,  is  inclined  to  despise 
the  prejudices  of  race  and  the  narrowness  of  patriotism,  and 
to  regard  them  as  merely  mischievous  ;  but  it  takes  all 
sorts  to  make  the  world  ;  the  life  of  humanity  would  not  be 
enriched  if  all  these  minor  differences  were  suppressed. 
Looking  back  on  the  history  of  the  past,  we  may  feel  that  it 
has  been  by  giving  free  play  to  its  sjDecial  aptitude  that  each 
race  has  made  its  contribution  to  civilisation.  The  history 
of  Greece  was  not  a  repetition  of  that  of  Egypt  nor  a  mere 
anticipation  of  that  of  Rome ;  each  led  its  independent  life 
and  contributed  its  special   quota  of  useful  arts,   or  of 

1  Lord  Durham's  'Report  on  the  Affairs  of  British  North  AmeiicA'  [Parlia- 
mentary Papers,  1839,  xvii.  5)  was  epoch-making,  from  the  manner  in  which 
il  \&\<\  down  improved  lines  of  colonial  policy. 


38  RACIAL  DIFFERENCES  [ch. 

philosophy,  or  of  law  to  the  common  stock  of  mankind. 
The  backward  races  of  the  present  day  have  each  their  own 
aptitudes,  and  points  of  mental  habit  or  manual  skill,  in 
which  they  are  better  equipped  than  Europeans.  Each  of 
them  might,  if  suitable  opportunities  were  afforded,  have 
some  contribution  to  make  to  the  life  of  the  world  that  no 
other  race  can  make  so  well.  The  world  is  likely  to  be 
poorer  if  all  are  reduced  to  a  similar  level ;  but  the  un- 
restrained play  of  economic  forces  appears  to  be  conducing 
to  this  result.  The  special  aptitudes  of  particular  peoples 
are  in  danger  of  being  effaced  by  the  crushing  force  of 
economic  cosmopolitanism.  In  these  days  of  rapid 
communication,  it  is  possible  to  treat  the  world  as  a  single 
market  for  many  purposes  of  production  and  distribution, 
and  to  aim  at  breaking  down  all  the  barriers  which  hinder 
commodities  from  being  circulated  by  the  force  of  this  one 
great  stream  to  every  part  of  the  globe.  Economic 
cosmopolitanism  is  a  fascinating  policy,  for  it  seems  to  open 
the  way  for  all  countries  to  co-operate  for  each  other's 
good,  but  it  may  also  bring  new  rivalries  into  operation ;  ^ 
indeed,  in  so  far  as  this  conception  has  been  realised,  the  back- 
ward races  have  been  brought  into  direct  competition  with 
peoples  that  are  economically  more  advanced.  Primitive 
peoples,  in  all  their  economic  weakness,  are  forced  into  a 
struggle  to  hold  their  own  against  the  economically  strong  ; 
their  agriculture  has  to  give  way,  since  their  land  is  re- 
quired to  grow  materials  and  food  that  have  a  high  value  in 
the  distant  industrial  communities,  and  it  is  developed  by 
men  with  concessions  from  distant  powers.  Besides  this, 
machine-made  goods  are  introduced  into  their  markets,  and 

1  Prof.  Nicholson  has  shown  that  Adam  Smith's  doctrine  did  not  really 
have  the  cosmopolitan  character  usually  ascribed  to  it  {A  Project  of  Empire, 
p.  10).  In  1891,  when  I  gave  a  presidential  address  to  the  Economic  Sec- 
tion of  the  British  Association  at  Cardilf  on  '  Nationalism  and  Cosmo- 
politanism in  Economics*  (Statistical  Society's  Journal,  liv.  p.  644),  I  did 
not  realise  as  clearly  as  I  do  now,  the  grave  evils  which  are  inevitably  con- 
nected with  cosmopolitanism,  or  the  practicability  of  treating  the  Empire 
as  an  economic  unit. 


II.]  ECONOMIC  COSMOPOLITANISM  39 

their  artisans  are  exposed  to  the  stress  of  the  struggle 
between  hand-work  and  machinery.  On  one  side  or  the 
other,  the  economic  life  of  primitive  communities  is  at- 
tacked, as  they  are  drawn  into  the  circle  of  the  world's 
commerce  ;  they  are  often  impoverished,  and  forced  to  feel 
the  increasing  strain  of  the  struggle  for  subsistence. 

India  is  the  part  of  the  British  Empire  where  this 
economic  cosmopolitanism  has  had  free  play,  and  there  can 
be  but  little  doubt  that  it  has  inflicted  serious  injury  on 
the  native  manufactures.  Fifty  years  ago  India  was 
celebrated  for  the  excellence  and  artistic  quality  of  the 
industrial  arts,  which  had  been  gradually  built  up  and 
traditionally  maintained  in  that  ancient  civihsation. 
Cashmere  shawls,  Dacca  muslins,  and  numerous  forms  of 
metal  work  in  gold,  silver,  and  brass  had  reached  a  high 
state  of  perfection.  Half  a  century  has  sufficed  to  stamp 
out  nearly  the  whole  of  them — with  a  distinct  loss  of 
artistic  quality  in  the  productions  of  the  world,  and  there- 
fore of  the  possibility  of  the  further  development  of  artistic 
production  in  the  future.  Though  tliis  change  is  to  be 
regretted,  it  has  probably  ceased  to  be  of  much  importance, 
so  far  as  the  trade  relations  of  India  with  the  rest  of  the 
world  are  concerned.  The  recent  development  of  the  jute 
industry  has  given  India  a  much  more  valuable  manufacture 
than  she  possessed  before.  But  there  is  no  reason  to 
suppose  that  the  progress  of  manufacturing  has  made  much 
impression  upon  the  country  at  large.^  Throughout  India 
generally  there  is  not  much  fluidity  of  labour,  and  the 
village  is  the  economic  unit ;  -  and,  in  so  far  as  imported 
wares  are  taking  the  place  of  native  manufactures,  the  village 
population  is  thrown  back  more  and  more  upon  the  soil. 
There  is  a  widespread  impression  in  India  that  the  popula- 
tion is  becoming  more  impoverished,  and  the  facts  that  the 

1  Sir  J.  A.  Bain's  '  General  Report  of  the  Census  of  India,  1891,'  in  Parlia- 
rnentury  Papers,  1893-94,  Ixiv.  p.  595. 

2  E.  A.  Gait,  '(jeueral  Report  on  the  Census  of  India,  1901,'  in  Parlia- 
mentary Papers,  1904,  liiv.  p.  '227.  , 


40  RACIAL  DIFFERENCES  [ch. 

area  under  crop  is  being  enlarged,^  and  that  a  landless  class 
is  increasing  in  many  villages,^  seem  to  indicate  that  the 
village  industrial  population  has  been  forced  to  revert  to 
agriculture  for  the  means  of  subsistence  ;  there  is  some 
reason  to  believe  that  the  pressure  ot  population  upon  the 
soil  has  become  more  serious,  and  that  there  is  increased 
difficulty  in  wringing  from  the  land  the  means  of  purchasing 
cheaper  goods.  England  has  made  splendid  efforts  for 
the  welfare  of  the  people  of  India,  by  establishing  peace 
throughout  the  length  and  breadth  of  the  land,  and  limiting 
the  excesses  of  the  arbitrary  rule  of  native  princes  ;  all  this 
is  of  little  avail  if,  after  saving  the  population  from  the 
blind  forces  of  pillage  and  aggression,  we  have  handed  them 
over  to  be  the  prey  of  the  blind  force  of  industrial  com- 
petition. The  manner  in  which  the  population  of  India 
has  been  suddenly  exposed  to  the  full  force  of  competition 
in  the  markets  of  the  world  gives  rise  to  grave  anxiety. 
Peaceful  commerce  can  claim  its  victims  as  well  as  war, 
and  it  exercises  an  insidious  action  which  affects  the  whole 
fabric  of  society. 

5.  The  Christian  Claim  of  Fair  Play  for  Native  Races 
(a)  There  is  at  the  present  time  a  strong  sentiment  in 
favour  of  according  a  generous  treatment  to  native  races, 
but  there  is  a  constant  danger  that  the  temptation  for  the 
strong  to  oppress  the  weak  may  break  out  in  some  form  or 
another.  The  restraints  of  humanitarian  feeling  have  not 
been  sufficiently  strong  to  prevent  civilised  men  from 
engaging  in  cruelties  on  which  we  look  back  with  shame, 
and  it  must  be  remembered  that  there  are  extraordinary 
possibiHties  of  self-deception  in  this  matter.  The  Spaniards 
really  believed  that  they  were  conferring  a  benefit  by 
bringing  so  much  of  Central  and  Southern  America  within 

1  Less  than  half  of  the  additional  area  is  irrigated  land.     E.  G.  Colvin, 
•Effects  of  British  Rule  in  India'  in  Nineteenth  Century,  Seipt.  1909,  p.  534, 
*  ilorison,  industrial  Organisation  of  an  Indian  Frovinee,  p.  190. 


ii.l  INSUFFICIENT  SAFEGUARDS  41 

tj.e  circle  of  Christendom,  and  it  is  equally  possible  to 
imagine  that  native  races  are  gainers  by  being  brought 
within  the  influence  of  the  whirlpool  of  the  commerce  of  the 
world.  Apart  altogether  from  such  self-deception,  how- 
ever, the  ruthless  disregard  of  the  welfare  of  native  races, 
which  leads  to  tlieir  degradation  and  extermination,  may 
be  carried  on  almost  as  a  duty,  and  at  any  rate  with  a  clear 
conscience,  by  those  who  are  in  actual  contact  with  natives 
and  know  their  ways.  The  pioneer  in  a  distant  land,  who 
is  trying  to  develop  the  resources  of  a  countiy  so  that  it 
shall  come  into  line  with  modern  conceptions  of  its  possi- 
bilities, is  apt  to  regard  the  aborigines  as  mere  obstacles  in 
the  path  of  progress.  He  heartily  endorses  Clough's 
rendering  of  the  sixth  commandment : 

'  Thou  shalt  not  kill,  but  need'st  not  strive 
Officiously  to  keep  alive.' 

From  his  point  of  view  there  is  little  or  nothing  to  be 
made  of  the  natives,  and  the  sooner  they  succumb  before 
the  march  of  economic  progress,  and  are  crowded  out  in  the 
struggle  for  subsistence,  the  better. 

Philanthropists  at  home  who  resent  this  doctrine  as 
materialistic,  and  desire  to  give  the  native  races  a  chance  of 
sharing  in  the  best  that  man  knows  of  culture,  and  above 
all  of  religion,  have  not  always  been  able  to  apply  a  suitable 
corrective.  The  cosmopolitan  philanthropist  is  not  ac- 
quainted with  the  savage,  through  actual  contact  with  him, 
and  does  not  know  the  danger  of  his  unrestrained  passions, 
and  the  impracticability  of  his  conceptions  of  property. 
The  cosmopolitan  philanthropists,  who  have  ignored  the 
reality  of  racial  distinctions,  and  who  have  msisted  that  the 
savage  should  be  treated  as  if  he  were  something  that  he 
is  not,  have  been  the  worst  enemies  of  those  they  profess 
to  defend.  They  have  sometimes  failed  to  realise  how 
much  of  native  institutions  could  be  advantageously 
retained  ;    and  they  have  not  reocguised  the  extent  to 


42  RACIAL  DIFFERENCES  [ch. 

which  disciphne,  especially  the  discipline  of  work,  may  be 
needed,  before  individuals  can  be  trusted  with  the  privi- 
leges which  are  the  birthright  of  men  in  civilised  societies. 
The  sense  of  racial  superiority  is  a  fundamental  difficulty, 
since  it  is  apt  to  distort  the  judgment  of  vigorous  men  on 
these  matters.  The  consciousness  of  great  achievement, 
and  of  great  capacity,  on  the  part  of  a  race  gives  rise  to  a 
desire  to  make  the  most  of  opportunities  ;  and  when  it  is 
coupled  with  a  sense  of  destiny,  the  will  to  live  becomes  an 
ambition  to  exercise  a  wider  and  deeper  influence  in  the 
world.  This  sense  of  racial  superiority  inclines  men  to 
make  a  very  one-sided  estimate  of  what  should  be  done  to 
take  fair  account  of  the  claims  of  less  favoured  peoples. 
It  is  quite  as  likely,  if  not  more  likely,  to  come  into  play 
among  a  people  who  are  used  to  self-government  under 
democratic  forms,  as  to  arise  under  a  personal  government. 
Pride  of  race  is  often  injurious  to  the  people  who  cherish 
it,  since  it  is  apt  to  render  them  less  adaptable,  ^  and  its 
persistence  and  growth  is  a  cause  of  irritation,  which 
endangers  the  peace  of  the  world, ^  but  the  most  obvious 
evils  it  entails  are  seen  in  the  treatment  of  native  races. 
It  thus  appears  that  neither  rational  intelligence  nor  phil- 
anthropic sentiment,  nor  the  sense  of  dignity  of  a  great 
people,  avails  to  correct  the  baneful  influence  which  Western 
civilisation  has  exercised  on  so  many  of  the  peoples  with 
which  it  has  been  brought  into  contact. 

1  The  people  of  China  and  the  Hindus  are  cases  in  point.   See  above,  p.  28. 

2  War,  -with  its  devastating  efiFects  on  the  human  race,  is  such  a  terrible 
scourge,  and  lies  so  entirely  within  the  control  of  human  beings,  that  there  is 
a  widely  diffused  sentiment  in  favour  of  trying  to  do  away  with  it  altogether. 
Many  of  the  causes  of  war,  as  it  has  existed  in  the  past,  have  come  to  an  end ; 
the  cost  of  war  among  civilised  nations  is  so  great  that  men  are  less  likely  to 
run  lightly  into  war ;  but  so  long  as  there  are  marked  differences  of  race, 
there  is  a  possibility  that  a  trivial  occasion  may  give  rise  to  wars  which  aim 
at  racial  expansion.  The  pride  of  race  is  able  to  clothe  racial  aggression  as  a 
virtue,  and  to  represent  racial  expansion  as  a  necessity.  War  remains  as  a 
permanent  menace  to  civilisation,  and  the  great  armaments  show  how  wide- 
spread is  the  apprehension,  lleadiness  to  have  recourse  to  war,  in  modem  times, 
is  rooted  in  the  pride  of  race,  which  exists  among  the  Western  nations,  and  has 
been  stimulated  into  new  life  in  the  East  by  the  successes  of  the  Japanese, 


II.]  SPECIFICALLY  CHRISTIAN  DUTY  43 

(6)  The  best  hope  of  avoiding  this  shame  in  the  future 
lies  in  being  in  earnest  in  adopting  and  giving  effect  to  the 
truths  embodied  in  Christian  morality.  There  must  be, 
first  of  all,  the  recognition  of  Right  as  absolute  and  supreme, 
apart  from  all  considerations  of  worldly  prosperity  or  racial 
dominance  ;  we  cannot  see  the  matter  aright  if  we  base  our 
decisions  on  experience  in  the  past  or  forecasts  of  the  future, 
so  far  as  we  can  penetrate.  We  must  endeavour  to  look  at 
these  struggles  with  dispassionate  eyes,  in  the  light  of  a 
wisdom  that  cometh  from  above.  The  Christian  belief 
that  God  has  made  of  one  blood  all  races  of  the  earth,  and 
that  we  dare  not  destroy  fellow-creatures  whom  He  has 
endowed  with  such  possibilities  merely  because  they 
stand  in  our  way,  is  the  only  foundation  on  which  a  wise 
and  generous  method  of  dealing  with  the  native  races  can 
be  established.  It  involves  the  acknowledgment  of  a 
power  that  is  greater  than  man's,  and  the  sense  that  our 
duty  lies  not  in  doing  what  we,  with  all  our  limitations, 
think  wise,  but  in  trying  to  do  what  He,  with  infinite 
knowledge,  wills.  The  hearty  recognition  of  this  divine 
sovereignty,  as  supreme,  will  help  us  to  be  on  our  guard 
against  the  self-deceptions  and  the  selfishness  which  have 
led  to  cruelty  and  wrong.  This  religious  element  was  very 
plainly  present  at  the  laying  of  the  foundations  of  the 
British  Empire  in  Elizabethan  and  Stuart  times,  and 
though  its  operation  has  been  restricted  and  obscured  by 
political  causes  and  commercial  considerations,  it  has  never 
been  wholly  forgotten.  At  any  rate  it  is  worth  noticing  in 
this  connection,  that  in  spite  of  the  arrogance  of  maimer 
which  so  many  peoples  feel  and  resent  in  the  Englishman, 
his  racial  pride  has  been  really  kept  in  check.  All  through 
his  national  history  the  Englishman  has  been  ready  to  learn 
from  other  peoples,  and  has  adopted  the  hal)its  and  practices 
which  he  saw  were  worth  imitating.  Englishmen  have 
been  curiously  unwilling  to  increase  the  bounds  of  their 
dominion  and  the  responsibilities  of  rule  :    Cromwell  was 


44  RACIAL  DIFFERENCES  [ch. 

prepared  to  abandon  our  claims  in  the  East  and  much  of 
our  footing  on  the  American  continent ;  and  during  the  last 
century,  when  there  was  such  an  enormous  expansion  of 
English  rule,  the  tale  of  the  lost  possessions  of  England 
was  increased  by  the  abandonment  of  some  positions  of 
great  importance  for  maintaining  maritime  supremacy.^ 
The  readiness  with  which  the  mother  country  yields  in  cases 
of  territorial  disputes  to  foreign  powers  has  done  much 
to  strain  the  loyalty  both  of  Canada  and  of  Australia.  By 
the  foreigner  this  complacence  is  often  interpreted  as  a  sign 
of  the  weakness  and  cowardice  of  a  mere  bully.  But  those 
who  believe  that  the  traditional  spirit  of  Englishmen  is  not 
dead,  prefer  to  interpret  it  as  a  sign  of  acceptance  of  the 
idea  of  Right  as  absolute  in  political  affairs,  and  of  a  willing- 
ness to  make  some  sacrifice  of  racial  interest,  in  order  to 
give  it  effect. 

(c)  The  effort  to  give  all  backward  peoples  a  fair  chance 
and  a  real  opportunity  appears  to  be  a  specifically  Christian 
work.  It  is  an  attempt  to  rescue  those  who  are  being 
crushed  in  the  remorseless  struggle  for  existence.^  It  in- 
volves a  certain  self-sacrifice,  a  refraining  from  making  use, 
to  their  fullest  extent,  of  the  opportunities  which  lie  within 
our  reach,  in  order  to  set  about  it  at  all.  No  one  can  be 
expected  to  throw  himself  heartily  into  the  task  unless  he 
is  inspired  by  a  confident  hope  that  it  is  possible  to  make 
something  of  very  unpromising  material ;  there  is  need  of 
patience  not  to  be  weary  in  well  doing.  Much  time  must 
elapse  before  the  remnants  of  a  tribal  system  and  of  native 
institutions  can  find  an  appropriate  place  in  a  growing  and 
developing  community  ;  still  more  is  required  for  the 
exercise  of  such  discipline  that  the  black  man,  set  free  from 
the  restraints  of  traditional  custom,  may  become  so  self- 
disciplined  as  to  become  a  useful  member  of  civilised 
society.     No   cut-and-dried  maxims  will   serve  to  solve 

»  W.  F.  Lord,  The  Lost  Foasetsums  of  England. 
2  See  above,  p.  18. 


ii.l      OFFICIAL  AND  MISSIONARY  CO-OPERATION        45 

difficulties  which  occur  in  different  and  constantly  changing 
circumstances  ;  but  it  is  a  task  in  which  Christian  citizens 
can  take  a  part  through  administrative  measures,  and 
Christian  missionaries  have  also  work  to  do  in  connection 
with  it.  The  State  may  be  at  pains  to  put  down  what  is 
obviously  injurious,  such  as  the  supplying  of  native  races 
with  alcoholic  liquors,  and  can  insist  on  the  strict  observ- 
ance of  agreements  that  have  been  made  with  them. 
Besides  this,  the  missionary  can  hold  up  such  ideals  of 
right,  and  exercise  such  careful  discii)line  over  those  who 
come  under  his  influence,  that  the  converts  may  learn  to 
make  good  use  of  the  opportunities  secured  to  them  by 
government.  The  primary  aim  of  the  State  is  mundane, 
in  ordering  the  affairs  of  this  world  ;  and  the  primary  aim 
of  the  Church  is  spiritual,  in  the  salvation  of  souls ;  but 
both  powers  can  co-operate.  The  white  man's  burden  is 
the  task  of  training  the  native  races,  and  modifying  their 
habits  and  institutions,  so  that  they  shall  be  able  to  Hve 
a  wholesome  life  among  the  other  peoples  of  the  world,  and 
that  any  individuals,  who  are  capable  of  appreciating  the 
best  gifts  of  civilisation,  should  have  the  opportunity  of 
sharing  in  them.  This  is  a  task  which  has  been  very 
specially  laid  upon  the  men  of  the  British  Empire  ;  and  it 
is  by  our  capacity  for  rising  to  this  duty,  and  doing  it  success- 
fully— as  successfully  as  the  Romans  did  in  their  day — that 
our  worthiness  for  our  place  in  the  world  will  ultimately  be 
judged. 


46  CIVIL  AUTHORITY  [ch. 


CHAPTER   III 

CIVIL   AUTHORITY 

1.  The  Enforcing  of  Right  and  Justice^ 

The  consideration  of  the  disgrace  which  has  occasionally 
sullied  the  reputation  of  civilised  peoples,  on  account  of 
their  conduct  towards  native  races,  has  led  us  to  recognise 
the  importance  of  a  conception  of  right  and  of  justice  as 
something  which  is  in  a  sense  absolute,  since  it  is  superior 
to  all  mere  interests  and  ambitions.  Throughout  the  world 
at  large,  there  is  no  agency  by  which  the  carrying  out  of 
what  is  right,  apart  altogether  from  the  convenience  and 
aims  of  separate  races,  can  be  secured  with  certainty. 
During  the  Middle  Ages,  the  Papacy  attempted  to  play 
this  part ;  but  its  claims  to  authority  have  been  discredited, 
and  it  has  little  influence  "with  such  powers  as  Russia,  Great 
Britain,  and  the  United  States.  Under  these  circumstances, 
the  maintenance  of  right  between  nations  can  only  be 
secured  by  agreements  and  treaties  ;  each  of  the  powers  is 
primarily  concerned  with  the  interests  of  a  particular  race 
or  nation,  and  there  is  a  frequent  temptation  for  the 
contracting  parties  to  set  aside  the  demands  of  international 
morality,  and,  if  occasion  offers,  to  repudiate  an  agreement 
that  has  ceased  to  be  advantageous. 

Within  each  realm  it  is  also  important  to  maintain  the 
conception  of  right  as  something  absolute,  and  independent 
of  the  particular  utilities  and  disutilities  which  vary  from 
moment  to  moment.  This  conceptii-.i  of  right  may  be 
habitually  enforced  within  each  separate  country  ;    the 


in.]    THE  SUPERHUMAN  ELEMENT  IN  THE  STATE      47 

government  provides  an  organ  through  which  right  can  be 
authoritatively  maintained  and  justice  done,  without  fear  or 
favour.  The  sphere  within  which  each  such  separate  autho- 
rity is  exercised  may  be  spoken  of  as  a  Realm  or  a  State. 
The  powers  that  be,  within  each  State,  are  ordained  by 
God  for  the  punishment  of  evildoers  and  the  praise  of  them 
that  do  Avell ;  and  social  problems  in  each  separate  country 
assume  a  very  different  aspect,  according  to  the  manner 
in  which  the  rulers  interpret  the  obligations  of  this  trust. 

(a)  There  is  an  extensive  sphere  in  which  it  is  possible 
for  the  State  to  draw  a  clear  distinction  between  right  and 
wrong,  and  to  brand  and  punish  what  is  wrong.  In  so 
doing,  the  State  habitually  exercises  powers  which  do  not 
belong  to  any  individual,  and  cannot  be  conferred  by  any 
assemblages  of  individuals.  No  man  has  a  right  to  take 
away  the  life  of  a  fellow-creature.  The  extreme  need  of 
a  man,  who,  when  drowning,  had  '  presence  of  mind  enough ' 
to  act  in  self-defence  and  knock  another  from  a  plank 
which  seemed  insufficient  for  them  both,  lies  outside  the 
sphere  of  rights  altogether.  At  a  supreme  moment  he  has 
made  a  decision  in  his  own  favour,  and  he  lives  as  a  man 
whose  conduct  needs  justification  ;  while  others  who  have 
taken  the  generous  line  in  similar  circumstances  are 
regarded  as  heroes.  The  State  claims  a  right  to  take  away 
life  by  capital  punishment,  and  claims  a  right  to  sacrifice 
the  lives  of  many  thousands  by  engaging  in  war.  Again, 
no  individual  has  a  right  to  deprive  another  of  his  property, 
without  giving  a  quid  pro  quo  ;  but  the  very  essence  of 
taxation  is  that  it  involves  the  sacrifice  of  money  on  the 
part  of  individuals  for  the  sake  of  objects  which  do  not 
benefit  them  directly,  or  even  of  which  they  disapprove — 
as  members  of  a  Peace  Society  disapprove  of  the  main- 
tenance of  armaments.  The  State  assumes  the  position  of 
a  super-man,  in  endeavouring  to  enforce  right  and  to  punish 
crime  among  its  citizens,  and  does  what  no  individual  has 
the  right  to  do. 


48  CIVIL  AUTHOKITY  [ch. 

(6)  This  superhuman  element  in  the  life  of  the  State — 
the  duty  of  enforcing  justice,  as  a  divine  thing,  and  without 
respect  ot  persons— degenerates  into  an  arbitrary  tyranny 
unless  it  is  exercised  under  a  sense  of  responsibility.  The 
resolute  purpose  to  do  what  is  right  and  put  down  what  is 
wrong,  leaves  no  room  for  the  play  ot  caprice  ;  it  may  be 
strengthened  by  the  sense  of  a  tradition  ot  just  rule,  which 
ought  to  be  maintained,  and  of  the  duty  of  handing  dowTi 
this  tradition  untarnished  as  a  heritage  tor  posterity.  But 
the  strongest  safeguard  against  the  temptation  which 
besets  rulers  to  exercise  their  powers  as  they  like  at  the 
moment,  and  even  for  their  own  personal  advantage,  is 
afforded  by  the  theistic  belief  that  those  who  rule  are 
responsible  to  God  for  the  manner  m  which  they  discharge 
their  duty.  This  doctrine  has  been  maintained  since 
Apostolic  times  in  the  Christian  Church  ;  it  is  at  all  events 
a  means  of  keeping  before  the  minds  of  men  the  idea  of 
something  that  is  to  be  enforced  because  it  is  right.  The 
conception  of  government  as  a  power  and  trust  to  be 
exercised  by  kings  on  behalf  of  God  is  a  comparatively 
simple  one  in  monarchies,  since  the  personal  responsibility 
of  the  ruler  for  the  manner  in  which  he  discharges  his  duty 
among  the  people  committed  to  his  care  can  hardly  be 
denied  by  any  person  who  makes  a  profession  of  Chris- 
tianity. It  is  most  important  that  the  same  sense  of 
trusteeship  and  of  duty  on  the  part  of  the  government — 
to  be  indifferent  and  to  punish  wrongdoers  of  any  class — 
should  be  maintained  under  democratic  rule,  and  that  all 
the  citizens,  who  in  any  way  take  part  in  directing  the 
policy  of  the  country  or  framing  legislative  measures, 
should  exercise  their  powers  under  a  sense  of  responsibility 
and  not  in  a  light-hearted  spirit.  Their  powers  are  very 
varied  ;  some  merely  give  a  vote,  and  others  take  a  much 
more  active  part  in  political  life ;  but  whatever  share  a 
man  may  have  in  the  government  of  the  country — 
whether  occasional  or  constant — he  will  do  his  political 


III.]  THE  DUTIES  OF  SUBJECTS  49 

duty  better  if  he  tries  to  do  it  under  a  sense  of  responsi- 
bility to  God. 

(c)  Wlien  the  superhuman  element  in  civil  authority  is 
thus  recognised,  and  the  responsibility  of  exercising  it  is  seen 
in  its  religious  aspect,  a  clearer  view  may  be  obtained  as  to 
the  nature  of  civil  obedience.  Submission  to  an  authority 
which  he  feels  he  ought  to  respect  is  not  inconsistent 
with  the  dignity  of  a  freeman,  even  in  cases  where  the 
particular  exercise  of  authority  may  seem  to  him  personally 
to  be  unnecessary  or  unwise.  But  submission  to  mere  force 
and  to  mere  caprice  is  a  mark  of  subservience.  Respect  for 
authority  is  the  cohesive  force  which  keeps  the  mechanism 
of  society  from  working  without  friction ;  any  action  which 
impedes  and  defies  civil  authority  makes  for  the  disintegra- 
tion of  the  community.  Bad  citizens  are  prepared  to  fall  in 
with  the  mandates  of  the  State,  but  only  so  far  as  these 
further  their  personal  interests  or  carry  out  their  own  wishes, 
and  they  submit  to  that  which  they  dislike  because  they 
have  not  the  power  to  resent  or  to  resist ;  they  have  no 
conception  of  obedience  as  a  duty  to  be  done,  or  respect  for 
the  State  as  an  authority  over  them.  The  citizen  who  has 
a  respect  for  the  law  as  law,  will  show  that  respect  by  carry- 
ing out  the  commands  of  the  State  even  when  they  do  not 
fall  in  with  his  own  views.  If  he  is  conscientiously  unable 
to  do  what  is  enjoined,  he  can  yet  show  respect  to  the 
law  by  accepting  the  penalty  without  resentment.  John 
Stubbe,  who,  when  he  had  just  been  deprived  of  his  right 
hand,  used  his  left  to  lead  a  cheer  for  Queen  Elizabeth, 
showed  that,  however  seditious  the  '  Gaping  Gulf  '  might 
have  appeared,  he  was  himself  thoroughly  loyal  to  the 
Queen's  Majesty  and  her  rule.  This  is  the  spirit  which 
holds  a  community  together  and  enables  it  to  achieve  a 
great  victory  against  overwhelming  odds. 

In  England  this  conception  of  government  has  been 
steadily  maintained ;  civil  obedience  has  been  constantly, 
though  not  universally,  recognised  as  a  duty  to  be  rendered 

D 


50  CIVIL  AUTHORITY  [ch. 

from  religious  motives.  The  high  conception  of  legislative 
and  $idministrative  responsibility,  as  something  to  be 
exercised  in  God's  name,  is  kept  before  the  minds  of  the 
public  by  the  Coronation  Service,  as  well  as  by  the  constant 
recital  of  prayers  for  the  King,  and  for  divine  guidance  for 
Parliament.  Closely  associated  with  the  recognition  of 
divine  authority  is  the  belief  in  the  supremacy  of  the 
morally  right,  as  something  which  ought  to  be  enforced 
among  men  ;  this  has  been  fundamental  in  the  political 
life  of  Britain,  however  the  citizens  may  have  differed  as  to 
the  means  of  detecting  the  right,  or  the  manner  in  which  it 
should  be  enforced.  The  charge  of  hypocrisy,  which  is  so 
frequently  brought  against  British  policy,  is  an  indirect 
testimony  to  the  prominence  of  the  expression  of  this 
belief ;  since  hypocrisy  is  the  tribute  which  vice  pays  to 
virtue.  Those  who  hold  that  a  love  of  dispassionate 
justice,  and  a  belief  in  the  possibility  of  exercising  it,  is 
a  genuine  feature  of  British  character,  will  at  least  be  in 
earnest  in  seeking  to  foster  it  and  to  render  it  more  thorough 
and  effective. 

{d)  Whether  it  is  strengthened  by  religious  sentiment 
or  maintains  itself  without  such  support,  this  principle 
gives  us  a  clue  to  the  essential  difference  between  good 
government  and  bad.  The  powers  of  the  State  are  so 
great,  and  its  influence  in  all  departments  of  life  is  so  far 
reaching,  that  the  character  of  the  government  of  a  country 
is  by  far  the  most  important  factor  in  all  the  social  problems 
which  arise  within  its  area.  The  sense  of  public  spirit, 
and  of  duty  to  the  public,  is  the  salt  which  helps  to  keep 
every  form  of  civic  life  free  from  corruption.  Respect  for 
the  administration  of  justice  cannot  be  maintained  unless 
the  public  believe  that  crimes  against  person  and  property 
are  punished  without  fear  or  favour,  and  in  all  alike.  In 
the  ancient  regime,  with  a  privileged  noblesse,  this  principle 
was  boldly  disregarded.  Public  spirit  and  a  sense  of  public 
duty  must  permeate  the  administration  of  the  affairs  of 


III.]    ECONOMIC  ASPECTS  OF  COOD  GOVERNMENT      61 

State,  or  corruption  will  enter  both  in  the  modes  of  collec-t- 
ing  revenue  and  in  the  expenditure  of  public  funds.  The 
importance  of  a  high  sense  of  public  duty  is  confirmed 
when  we  recognise  how  much  it  contributes  to  the  pro- 
sperity of  a  country  in  its  economic  sense.  For  a  man  to 
be  secured  by  authority  in  the  enjoyment  of  the  fruits  of 
his  enterprise  and  of  his  labour,  and  to  be  secured  in  the 
possession  of  that  to  which  he  is  entitled  under  the  laws  of 
the  State,  is  the  corner-stone  of  all  industrial  prosperity .^ 

In  civilised  communities,  where  the  use  of  money  is 
constant  and  habitual,  the  necessity  of  a  high  sense  of 
rectitude  in  regard  to  the  medium  of  exchange  has  become 
obvious,  though  monarchs  were  long  in  discovering  that  it 
was  a  public  duty  to  maintain  the  standard  of  the  coinage, 
and  not  to  attempt,  in  consequence  of  temporary  neces- 
sities, to  tamper  with  the  purity  of  the  circulating  medium 
issued  under  the  authority  of  the  State  :  that  lesson  was 
finally  impressed  upon  Englishmen  in  the  time  of  Edward 
VI.  and  Elizabeth.  It  is  even  more  important  that  the 
duty  of  fulfilling  contracts  should  be  carefully  maintained 
in  modern  times,  when  so  much  use  is  made  of  the  power  of 
national  credit.  Recent  research  has  demonstrated  that 
Charles  n.  had  exceptional  excuses  for  breaking  faith  with 
the  national  creditors,^  but  the  shame  of  the  Stop  of  the 
Exchequer  will  never  be  forgotten.  Much  sorrowful 
experience  had  to  be  gained  before  the  conditions  under 
which  credit  can  be  maintained  came  to  be  clearly  under- 
stood ;  but  Englishmen  gained  this  experience  during  the 
eighteenth  centurj' ;  in  their  hands  credit  became  the 
great  instrument  by  means  of  which  Great  Britain  was  able 
to  bring  such  vast  resources  to  bear  in  the  struggle  with 
Napoleon.  Dependence  on  credit  has  come  to  be  part  of 
our  political,  as  well  as  of  our  commercial,  system  ;    but 

1  See  below,  p.  33. 

•  W.  A.  Shaw,  '  The  Beginnings  of  the  National  Debt,'  ix>  Owens  College 
Eiatorical  Essays,  p.  400. 


52  CIVIL  AUTHORITY  [cH. 

fredit  is  so  sensitive,  that  the  whole  fabric  might  be 
jeopardised  by  some  apparently  trivial  disregard  of  its 
obligations  on  the  part  of  the  State.  The  moneyed  interest 
could  hardly  pass  unscathed  through  such  a  succession  of 
canijjaigns  as  have  been  directed  for  the  last  half  century 
against  the  landed  interest.  The  claims  of  the  dead  hand 
are  not  altogether  easy  to  justify  in  either  case  ;  and  the 
repudiation  of  a  debt,  or  of  interest,  will  always  be  a 
temptation  to  those  who  do  not  keep  scrupulously  to  the 
opinion  that  a  breach  of  the  plighted  M^ord  is  not  to  be 
thought  of  because  it  is  wrong. 

2.  The  Utilitarian  State 

The  influence  of  a  high  ideal  of  public  duty,  in  ensuring 
a  healthy  condition  in  all  departments  of  political  life,  is 
so  insensible  that  it  is  possible  to  ignore  it  altogether,  and 
to  regard  the  State  as  a  purely  utilitarian  institution  whi(!h 
looks  after  the  interests  of  the  citizens  jointly  and  severally. 
This  conception  suffices  for  some  purposes.  It  is  possible 
to  regard  the  maintenance  of  the  Army  and  Navy  as  in  the 
interest  of  all  the  citizens,  since  all  are  defended  against 
attacks  from  without ;  and  also  to  treat  the  punishment 
of  crime  and  the  maintenance  of  police  as  things  that  are  in 
the  interest  of  all  honest  men.  This  view  of  the  State  and 
society  is  most  plausible  in  its  economic  aspects,  though 
even  here  it  is  inadequate ;  ^  but  there  are  some  grounds 
for  maintaining  that  the  good  of  the  whole  is  best  attained 
by  giving  free  play  to  individual  self-interest.  Bastiat 
and  other  writers  have  been  prepared  to  believe  in  a  pre- , 
arranged  harmony  by  which  the  self-seeking  ot  each  worked 
out  for  the  benefit  of  all  ;  under  these  circumstances 
laisser  faire  could  be  regarded  as  the  best  basis  for  the 
A\c]l-being  of  the  community.  It  may  be  urged  that  the 
conflict  of  interests  is  merely  apparent,  and  that  the 
1  See  b«low,  p.  88. 


iil]  the  utilitarian  state  63 

fcjepaiate  interests  so  far  canc;el  one  another  out  and  correct 
each  other  that  tlie  good  of  the  coinnnmity  as  a  whole 
emerges,  naturally  and  unconsciously,  by  giving  perfectly 
free  play  to  personal  ambitions  and  tastes  and  proclivities. 
There  is  some  apparent  justification  for  this  theory,  when 
the  material  wealth  of  the  community  is  all  that  is  in  view  ; 
and  when  the  form  of  self-assertion,  taken  for  granted,  is 
that  of  the  competition  of  business  men  of  a  similar  type 
with  one  another.  In  this  shape  free  play  for  self-interest 
was  regarded  as  an  axiom  by  the  Manchester  School ;  but 
it  was  only  plausible,  because  these  writers  assumed  that 
self-interest  was  more  or  less  enlightened.  In  so  far  as  any 
man  prefers  to  be  comfortable  in  the  present  at  all  hazards, 
whether  he  has  to  beg,  borrow,  or  steal,  or  even  to  live  on 
his  wife's  earnings — he  cannot  be  allowed  to  carry  out  his 
own  views  of  what  he  likes  without  detriment  to  the 
community.  The  indulgence  of  the  personal  desire  for 
immediate  enjoyment  is  apt  to  distract  from  a  consideration 
of  the  well-being  of  the  community.  As  individual  lives 
are  shorter  than  the  life  of  the  community,  the  aggregate 
of  personal  interest,  at  any  one  time,  can  never  be  identical 
with  that  of  the  community  as  a  whole.  The  more  men  are 
trained  to  take  a  far-sighted  and  a  large  view  of  their 
business  interests,  the  more  nearly  will  tlieir  conscious  self- 
interest  and  personal  estimate  of  utility  and  disutility 
coincide  with  the  welfare  of  the  community.^  This 
possibility  of  reconciliation  does  not  arise  from  the  fact 
that  the  individual  is  free  to  assert  himself  as  he  likes,  but 
is  due  to  his  being  so  trained  intellectually  that  he  is  capable 
of  exercising  self-restraint.  It  is  the  development  of 
intelligence,  the  power  of  looking  far  ahead  and  far  afield, 
that  enables  him  to  bring  himself  into  line  with  the  good 
of  the  communitj'  without  conscious  efifort.  Even  in  the 
economic  sphere  it  is  clear  that  the  good  of  the  whole  is 
secured,  not  by  giving  free  play  to  actual  interests,  but 
1  See  below,  p.  95. 


54  CIVIL  AUTHORITY  [ch. 

through  the  restraint  that  is  laid  upon  them.  And  in  the 
larger  questions  of  poHtics  it  is  also  necessary  that  the 
calculation  of  personal  interest  should  be  corrected  by 
other  considerations. 

(a)  The  willingness  to  make  habitual  sacrifices  of  personal 
convenience  and  personal  advantage  for  the  public  benefit 
is  wjiat  we  mean  by  public  spirit ;  it  is  the  very  antithesis 
of  the  Utilitarianism  which  seems,  to  the  casual  visitor  to 
the  United  States,  to  satisfy  the  American  citizen.  While 
the  patriotic  sentiment  and  humanitarian  sentiment  are 
strong  in  that  country,  the  sense  of  public  spirit,  and 
therefore  of  a  duty  to  make  trivial  sacrifices  on  behalf  of 
the  State,  seems  to  be  little  developed.  It  is  difficult  to 
avoid  forming  the  opinion  that  political  life  appears  to  be 
regarded  in  America  as  the  mere  weighing  of  larger  and 
smaller  interests  against  each  other,  and  presents  little 
attraction  to  men  of  cultivation  and  leisure.  The  con- 
ception of  government  as  trusteeship  for  the  community  as 
a  whole,  and  of  administrative  life  as  helping  in  the  dis- 
charge of  a  great  public  trust,  is  curiously  lacking  in 
America  ;  but  political  authority  seems  to  be  treated  as  if 
it  werd  nothing  more  than  a  power  of  giving  eifect  to  or 
mediating  between  the  claims  of  the  interests  of  particular 
areas  or  particular  sections  of  the  community.^  Each  of 
these  may  be  represented  as  an  element  which  is  essential 
to  the  good  of  the  whole  ;  each  may  be  attended  to  in  turn, 
so  that  an  approximation  to  the  good  of  the  whole  can  be 
secured  by  the  administration — and  it  may  be  a  very 
successful  approximation.  But  from  this  point  of  view, 
which  seems  to  be  adopted  by  many  Americans,  there  can 
be  no  sense  of  public  duty  to  take  part  in  civic  affairs  ;  the 
competing  interests  can  be  trusted  to  look  after  themselves 
in  turn.     The  political  boss  may  be  a  well-meaning  cynic 

1  In  England,  Land,  Capital,  and  Labour  have  each  claimed  in  turn  to  be 
the  element  of  paramount  importance,  the  interests  of  which  should  be 
favoured  for  the  sake  of  the  welfare  of  the  commuuity  as  a  whole. 


,11.]  LACK  OF  PUBLIC  SPIRIT  65 

who  believes  that  it  is  impossible  to  retain  really  able  men 
in  the  service  of  the  State  unless  it  is  made  worth  their 
while,  and  holds  that  it  is  necessary  to  find  indirect 
methods  of  tempting  men  of  great  capacity  to  throw  their 
energies  into  public  life,  since  the  taxpayer  would  never 
consent  to  pay  salaries  which  would  be  adequate  to  reward 
them.  This  is  the  principle  which  has  been  systematically 
followed  by  Tammany  Hall,  so  as  to  secure  great  efficiency 
in  municipal  government,  but  at  extraordinary  expense  to 
the  ratepayers.  Where  political  life  is  conducted  in  this 
fashion,  there  can  be  little  sense  of  obligation  to  meet  the 
requirements  of  tne  State,  and  no  habitual  readiness  to 
incur  a  sacrifice  for  it — no  stigma  of  any  kind  will  attach 
to  the  '  tax-dodger,'  as  he  is  merely  defeating  the  machina- 
tions of  some  other  interest.  Large  interests  must  often 
be  anxious  to  influence  the  administration  of  justice ;  and 
attempts  to  brmg  monetary  influence  to  bear  on  judicial 
decisions,  both  in  State  Courts  and  in  the  interpretation  of 
the  Constitution,  need  cause  no  surprise.  The  interests  of 
the  members  of  the  community  are,  to  a  very  large  extent, 
m  favour  of  the  maintenance  of  a  measure  of  law  and  order, 
but  there  are  occasions,  in  America  as  in  other  places, 
where  it  is  for  a  man's  private  interest  to  have  the  law  set 
aside.  The  failure  to  recognise  a  sense  of  duty,  altogether 
apart  from  interest,  in  political  life,  seems  to  account  for 
the  small  amount  of  public  spirit  among  the  wealthy  classes 
in  the  United  States,  and  for  the  lack  of  ambition  to  enter 
on  public  life. 

(6)  Though  for  many  purposes  the  utilitarian  State  seems 
to  secure  excellent  results,  and  a  community  may  flourish  in 
strength  and  wealth  and  maintain  a  high  standard  of  culture 
and  comfort  under  its  control,  occasions  yet  arise  when 
political  action  is  taken  that  lies  outside  the  ordinary 
canons  and  that  cannot  be  justified  on  purely  utilitarian 
grounds.  These  offer  an  unconscious  testimony  to  the 
truth  that  there  is  a  right,  and  a  duty  to  the  State,  which 


56  CIVIL  AUTHORITY  [ch. 

is  above  all  considerations  of  interest.  The  enormous 
sacrifices  which  were  made  on  each  side  during  the  American 
Civil  War  sufficed  to  show  how  deeply  rooted  this  spirit  is, 
even  though  it  does  not  find  expression  regularly  and 
habitually  through  the  machinery  of  State. 

Something  similar  is  to  be  observed  in  the  appeals  to  a 
'  higher  law  '  which  appear  to  be  recognised  as  a  sufficient 
ground  for  setting  aside  the  ordinary  course  of  justice. 
The  recognition  of  a  right,  on  the  part  of  a  private  person, 
to  take  the  law  into  his  or  her  own  hands  and  to  punish  a 
criminal,  is  a  testimony  to  the  belief  in  a  justice  supreme, 
above  all  human  institutions  ;  but  in  so  far  as  this  supreme 
justice  is  brought  into  operation,  not  through  the  institu- 
tions of  society  but  apart  from  them,  the  ordinary  adminis- 
trative institutions  are  unnecessarily  discredited,  and  the 
course,  which  the  higher  justice  takes,  is  in  danger  of  being 
spasmodic  and  ill-considered.  The  racial  animosities  in 
the  South  have  led  men,  again  and  again,  to  assert  the  right 
to  exercise  rough-and-ready  criminal  justice,  on  grave 
suspicion,  but  without  formal  proof,  by  Lynch  Law. 
When  the  administration  of  the  affairs  of  State  is  not 
consciously  and  continuously  penetrated  by  the  sense 
of  duty,  it  is  hardly  possible  to  see  in  what  way  outbursts 
of  righteous  indignation  can  be  brought  under  rational 
control. 

(c)  Mr.  Roosevelt  has  expressed  himself  in  a  way  which 
shows  that  he  does  not  recognise  the  validity  of  any 
absolute  right  or  sense  of  justice  in  international  affairs. 
He  holds  up  Englishmen  as  giving  an  example  which  his 
countrymen  should  follow,  inasmuch  as  he  believes  that 
Englishmen  are  for  their  country  under  any  circumstances, 
and  are  eager  to  secure  its  interests  whether  right  or  wrong.  ^ 
But  this  is  the  sort  of  praise  which  Englishmen  would 
disclaim,  and  which  they  might  even  resent  as  insulting. 
Tt  is  part  of  the  national  pride  of  the  Englishman  that  he 

1  Admmistraiion — Civil  Service,  p.  136. 


in.]  OBSTACLES  TO  ARBITRATION  67 

believes  that  his  country  has  fought  to  enforce  the  right, 
without  regard  to  national  gain  or  loss  ;  and  he  has  even 
been  ready  to  attribute  this  same  disinterestedness  to 
Americans  themselves.  It  is  only  on  the  supposition  that 
both  parties  are  agreed  in  desiring  a  settlement  which  is 
just  and  right,  that  any  Englishman  would  agree  to  settle 
political  disputes  by  arbitration.^  If  arbitration  is  to  be  a 
mere  bargaining,  in  which  each  nation  tries  to  win  its  case 
at  any  price,  it  can  hardly  lead  to  such  a  settlement  of  any 
dispute  as  will  be  permanent.  There  is  less  finality  about  a 
decision  obtained  through  successful  '  bluff,'  and  the  skilful 
manipulating  of  the  cards  in  the  game,  than  by  the  arbitra- 
ment of  war.  Much  is  said  in  America  about  the  desir- 
ability of  introducing  arbitration  as  a  means  of  settling 
international  disputes  ;  but  the  experience  of  the  Alabama 
award,  and  of  the  means  by  which  it  was  obtained,^  have 
done  much  to  render  Englishmen  unwilling  to  trust  great 
issues  to  this  method  of  settlement.  If  this  mode  of 
avoiding  the  horrors  of  war  is  to  be  effective,  it  must  be 
clear  that,  in  the  statement  of  the  issues  as  well  as  in  the 
composition  of  the  tribunal,  both  parties  are  willing  to  be 
fair,  and  are  ready  to  give  such  full  information  as  will 
lead,  not  merely  to  the  triumph  of  their  own  case  at  the 
time,  but  to  the  r.-alisation  by  peaceful  means  of  what  is 
right  and  fair. 

(d)  In  contrast  to  what  is  familiar  to  him  in  his  own 
country,  the  English  traveller  in  the  States  is  likely  to  be 
surprised  at  the  attitude  which  is  taken  on  the  other  side 
of  the  Atlantic  towards  civil  authoritj',  and  the  want  of 
respect  for  it  as  maintaining  and  enforcing  right  between 
man  and  man.  The  very  limited  extent  to  which  the  con- 
ceptions of  right  and  wrong,  and  of  public  spirit  and  public 
duty — apart  from  mere  interests — enter  into  American 
political  life  is  partly  accounted  for  when  we  consider  tho 

1  See  btlow,  p.  74. 

a  J.  Pope,  Sir  J.  A.  MacdonalJ,  ii.  p.  85-140. 


58  CIVIL  AUTHORITY  [ch. 

history  of  the  country.  The  first  settlers  in  New  England 
had  been  strongly  repelled  by  the  forms  by  which  the 
religious  element  in  English  political  life  had  been  exercised 
in  the  time  of  Charles  i.  Their  strong  assertion  of  the 
supremacy  of  the  individual  conscience  was  inconsistent 
with  the  admission  of  a  divine  sanction  for  existing  civil 
authority,  and  religion  was  brought  to  bear  by  the  Puritans 
to  justify  resistance  ;  but  they  had  little  success  in  creating 
a  new  social  order.  The  attempt  in  the  New  World  to 
egulate  the  entire  life  of  the  community  by  a  system  of 
organisation  devised  for  religious  purposes  was  not  a  suc- 
cess ;  and  after  the  Congregational  theocracies  broke  down, 
through  the  revulsion  which  was  felt  in  regard  to  the  treat- 
ment of  the  Salem  witches  in  1692,  the  pretension  of 
exercising  any  religious  influence  on  civil  affairs  disappeared. 
Religious  conviction  does  not  appear  to  be  a  powerful 
factor  in  public  lite  either  among  the  administrators  or 
the  citizens  of  the  old  Puritan  States.  Christian  ordinances 
of  every  kind  have  ceased  to  play  a  prominent  part  in  tfie 
life  of  the  community  throughout  large  districts  of  the 
country.  According  to  Governor  Rollin  of  New  Hamp- 
shire,^ '  The  decline  of  the  Christian  religion,  particularly  in 
our  rural  communities,  is  a  marked  feature  of  the  times,  and 
steps  should  be  taken  to  remedy  it.  .  .  .  There  are  towns 
where  no  church  bell  sends  forth  its  solemn  sound  from 
January  to  January  ;  there  are  villages  where  children 
grow  to  manhood  unchristened  ;  there  are  communities 
where  the  dead  are  laid  away  without  the  benison  of  the 
name  of  the  Christ,  and  where  marriages  are  solemnised 
only  by  the  Justice  of  the  Peace.'  This  widespread  neglect 
of  religious  ordinances  is,  in  the  Governor's  opinion,  bound 
to  react  upon  civil  life.  '  Every  good  citizen  knows,'  he 
says,  '  that  when  the  restraining  influences  of  religion  are 
withdrawn  from  a  community,  its  decay — moral,  mental,  and 
financial — is  swift  and  sure.'  Under  these  circumstances,  it 
1  ProcUmatioQ  in  Concord  Evening  Monitor,  6th  April  1899. 


III.]      ENGLISH  AND  AMERICAN  POLITICAL  LIFE        69 

is  clear  that  an  influence  which  might  do  much  to  elevate  its 
tone  is  not  being  effectively  brought  to  bear  on  public  life. 
The  constitutional  doctrines  which  found  favour  in 
America  were  directly  derived  from  the  philosophy  of 
Locke,  and  he  avowedly  based  civil  government  on  a 
convention  made  for  mutual  convenience  ;  there  was  no 
room  in  his  system  for  any  authoritative  claim  to  obedience 
in  affairs  of  State,  or  for  any  assertion  of  right  apart  from 
the  dictates  of  interest.  The  conception  that  persons  and 
communities  bartered  a  portion  of  their  freedom  for  the 
greater  advantages  of  combined  life,  was  practically 
exemplified  in  the  growth  of  the  United  States  ;  where 
to^vnships  were  federated  into  States,  and  States  were  at 
last,  for  mutual  convenience  and  commercial  purposes, 
federated  into  United  States.  Administration  in  the  town- 
ships was  always  regarded  as  a  burden  for  which  remunera- 
tion was  expected,  and  the  little  communities  left  very  little 
freedom  or  initiative  to  those  who  undertook  such  office. 
The  petty  distrusts  which  show  themselves  in  parochial 
politics,  and  the  dread  of  rival  interests,  have  affected 
the  atmosphere  in  which  the  civil  institutions  of  the  North 
have  grown  up  ;  and  there  has  been  no  influence,  either 
religious  or  philosophical,  to  counteract  these  tendencies, 
and  to  keep  alive  or  maintain  the  tradition  of  English  public 
life.  The  difference  of  tone  between  political  affairs  in 
America  and  in  Great  Britain  is  not  to  be  accounted  for  by 
the  fact  that  the  United  States  is  a  young  country  with  no 
leisured  class,  but  seems  rather  to  be  associated  with  the 
prevalence  there  of  a  cynical  habit  of  mind,  which  is 
inconsistent  with  a  sense  of  public  obligation  and  with 
honourable  ambition. 

3.  Corruption  and  DecadeTice 

(a)  The  fact  of  the  reality  of  right,  and  the  supremacy 
of  Justice  as  the  dominant  factor  in  political  relations,  is 


I 

80  CIVIL  AUTHORITY  [ch. 

confirmed  by  noting  the  Nemesis  which  has  overtaken 
pontics,  where  this  guiding  principle  has  not  been  recog- 
nised, or  where  it  has  been  very  imperfectly  acted  upon. 
If  civil  authority  is  not  based  on  a  really  firm  foundation, 
there  is  constant  danger  of  its  being  undermined  altogether. 
Public  and  private  interests  are  very  closely  intermingled  ; 
it  is  impossible  to  keep  them  absolutely  apart.  The 
administrator  who  is  not  carefully  scrupulous  and  sensitive 
is  sure  to  come  under  the  accusation  of  merely  acting  for 
his  own  personal  advantage,  in  disregard  of  the  public  good, 
and  possibly  to  its  injury.  The  personal  and  the  public 
cannot  indeed  be  severed ;  but  there  is  all  the  difference 
between  the  man  whose  ambitions  are  realised  through  the 
public  good  and  by  doing  public  service  well,  and  the  man 
who  is  prepared,  Avhen  opportunity  offers,  to  treat  public 
affairs  as  subservient  to  his  personal  gain.  If  he  is  willing 
to  take  the  latter  course,  great  opportunities  of  taking 
advantage  of  his  position  occur  in  connection  with  the 
granting  of  concessions  to  men  of  capital  for  enterprises 
either  at  home  or  abroad. 

Lord  Burleigh  stands  out  in  the  Elizabethan  age  as  a 
high  example  of  scrupulous  probity  in  this  respect  as  well 
as  in  all  other  public  affairs.  The  business  of  the  State 
involves  many  transactions  and  much  employment  of 
labour  ;  there  are  opportunities  for  men  in  any  depart- 
ment to  feather  their  own  nests.  But  this  sort  of  ad- 
ministrative corruption  is  rarely  completely  successful  for 
any  length  of  time,  as  the  modes  of  checking  and  detecting 
such  misconduct  in  the  ordinary  departments  of  Govern- 
ment are  constantly  being  improved  ;  and  those  who  incur 
the  suspicion  of  abusing  places  of  trust  are  forced  to 
relinquish  them.  Francis  Bacon  was  compelled  to  give  up 
the  highest  office  in  the  State  on  grounds  which  do  not 
seem  to  have  constituted  any  stain  on  his  personal  honour  ; 
but,  even  in  that  age,  he  had  become  an  impossible  person 
for  the  post  he  held.     If  corruption  comes  to  affect  public 


III.]      NEMESIS  OF  A  DEFECTIVE  SENSE  OF  DUTY       61 

service  generally,  it  is  likely  to  undermine  all  respect  for 
authority,  and  to  endanger  the  stability  of  the  system  of 
government.     The  frequency  of  revolutions  in  France  has 
been  evidence  of  the  slight  hold  which  any  of  the  govern- 
ments has  had  upon  the  respect  of  the  citizens  ;    and 
interesting  examples  occur  in  English  history  as  well.     It 
seems  extraordinary   that  a  body  of  men,   such  as  the 
majority  in  the  Long  Parliament,  who  liad  taken  a  lead  in 
the  demand  for  popular  liberties  and  had  succeeded  in  their 
struggle  with  the  king,  should  have  proved  incapable  of 
establishing  a  strong  Republican    government ;    but  the 
corruption  among  them  was  notorious,  and  it  was  impossible 
that  they  should  secure  the  respect  of  the  country  or  obtain 
a  long  tenure  of  power.^     The  opportunities  offered  for 
obtaining  large  estates  out  of  Church  or  Crown  property 
constituted  a  great  temptation.     Lenthal  and  other  pro- 
minent members  of  Parliament  showed  so  little  power  of 
resisting  it  that  they  incurred  the  scathing  denunciations 
of  Milton,  and  they  had  so  completely  forfeited  public 
respect  that  it  was  easy  for  Cromwell  to  oust  them  alto- 
gether.    Even  under  his  rule,  the  government  was  not  so 
conducted  as  to  win  the  confidence  of  the  country.     The 
army,  which  he  had  created,  and  the  navy,  which  had  come 
under  his  control,  enabled  him  to  remodel  the  government 
of  the  country,   and  to  procure  a  strong  position  with 
foreign  powers  ;   but  he  and  his  army  were  in  the  position 
of  making  their  own  estimate  of  their  deserts,  and  rewarding 
themselves  accordingly.     There  was  no  such  self-denial  as 
made  it  clear  that  they  had  the  public  good  at  heart,  rather 
than  their  own  advancement ;  and  there  came  to  be  increas- 
ing difficulty  in  obtaining  contributions  to  the  revenue 
required  by  a  goverimient  under  which  a  few  individuals 
had    notoriously    sprung    into    wealth    and    power.     The 
Protectorate,  in  its  turn,  was  completely  discredited  ;    so 

1  Growth  of  English  Industry  and  Commerce  in  Modem  Times,  pp.  181- 
185. 


eS  CIVIL  AUTHORITY  [ch. 

that  Monk  and  Clarendon  met  with  Httle  opposition  when 
they  set  themselves  to  reintroduce  the  old  constitution  in 
Church  and  State.  With  all  its  defects,  parliamentary- 
government  affords  the  opportunity  for  the  public  criticism 
of  men  and  measures  ;  and  neither  dishonest  individuals, 
nor  a  corrupt  system,  can  long  maintain  the  tenure  of  power 
in  the  face  of  a  public  opinion  which  is  healthy  and  sound. 
This  is  the  ultimate  tribunal  by  which  men  and  institutions 
are  tried. 

(6)  The  preservation  of  a  high  tone  of  public  opinion  is 
the  one  effective  safeguard  for  rescuing  the  State  from 
the  evils  introduced  by  administrative  corruption ;  the 
maintenance  of  high  character  affords  us  the  best  security 
that  regard  shall  really  be  paid  to  the  welfare  of  the 
public.  It  is  certainly  wise  to  be  on  the  watch  against 
opportunities  for  wrongdoing  on  the  part  of  officials, 
though  this  may  result  in  complication  and  fussiness 
over  details  ;  but  it  is  as  impossible  for  the  body  politic, 
as  it  is  for  the  human  body,  to  guard  against  the  inroads 
of  every  possible  disease  germ  ;  the  best  safeguard  is  in 
the  maintenance  of  such  a  healthy  condition  that  the  attacks 
of  disease  can  be  thrown  off.  The  tone  of  political  life  is 
elevated,  or  it  is  lowered,  not  so  much  by  any  one  particular 
act,  as  by  the  whole  spirit  in  which  public  affairs  are  con- 
ducted. It  is  possible  for  public  business  to  be  carried  on 
either  in  a  Christian  or  in  an  unchristian  spirit.  If  Christian 
principle  is  to  be  successfully  brought  to  bear  on  public  life, 
it  cannot  be  by  mere  occasional  agitation  for  some  par- 
ticular measure — such  as  the  freeing  of  slaves  or  the  closing 
of  public-houses — but  by  the  constant  effort  to  inspire  all 
political  action  with  Christian  aims  and  motives.  Every 
public  leader  does  something  to  educate  his  party  and 
modify  its  character  for  good  or  evil ;  the  maimer  in  which 
he  puts  forward  his  policy  tends  to  affect  the  constituencies, 
and  either  to  raise  or  lower  the  citizens  in  their  fitness  for 
taking  a  share  in  ruling  the  country  and  her  destiny  ;  it  ia 


HI.]  STATESMANSHIP  AND  STATESCRAFT  63 

less  by  any  particular  achievement  than  by  the  influence  of 
his  career  on  the  character  of  his  countrymen  that  a  great 
statesman  serves  his  country  best.  Even  if  his  policy  is 
unsuccessful  and  his  calculations  fail,  the  man  who  so 
conducts  the  affairs  of  the  realm  as  to  ennoble  the  aims  and 
clear  the  thoughts  of  his  fellow-citizens  is  entitled  to  the 
highest  admiration  as  a  statesman.  The  best  results,  from 
this  point  of  view,  are  likely  to  follow  when  the  statesman 
appeals  to  the  intelligence  of  those  whom  he  wishes  to 
influence,  and  sets  them  thinking.  He  quickens  their  in- 
telligence, if  he  is  not  content  to  coin  a  phrase,  and  raise  the 
party  cry  as  a  badge,  but  forces  them  to  consider  whether, 
under  changed  circumstances,  the  old  cry  has  any  meaning, 
and,  if  so,  what  that  meaning  is.  A  statesman  can  exercise 
a  long-continued  and  national  influence  if  he  sets  before  the 
public  a  clear  principle  which  can  be  applied  in  many 
directions,  or  a  high  ideal  of  the  good  of  the  community 
which  embraces  many  subordinate  aims  and  sets  each  in  its 
due  place  of  importance.  The  further  he  himself  looks  in 
time,  and  the  wider  the  area  of  which  he  takes  account,  the 
better  will  he  be  able  to  help  his  countrymen  to  take  far- 
seeing  views.  The  effort  to  present  his  policy  in  this  fashion 
will  have  a  chastening  influence,  as  he  must  discard  any 
exaggerated  and  hasty  language,  since  it  is  offensive  to  the 
habits  of  careful  reflection,  which  he  is  endeavouring  to 
bring  into  play. 

The  statesman,  whose  primary  appeal  is  to  sentiment, 
does  not  do  nearly  so  much  to  improve  the  character  of  the 
citizens  who  are  influenced  by  his  lead  ;  it  is  true  that 
generous  sentiment  is  strengthened  by  finding  expression  in 
action,  but  it  is  impossible  to  sustain  highly  wrought  feeling, 
as  a  steady  and  persistent  force,  in  the  same  fashion  as 
carefully  thought  out  ideals  may  be  maintained.  A  com- 
munity whose  sentiments  are  easily  aroused  in  one  direction 
or  another — which  oscillates  between  indignation  at 
atrocities  in  Bulgaria,  or  elsewhere,  and  horror  at  armed 


64  CIVIL  AUTHORITY  [ch. 

intervention  of  any  kind — can  have  no  stability  of  purpose, 
and  no  persistent  policy. 

It  is  also  to  be  noticed  that  ardent  feeling  is  uncritical ; 
there  is  a  danger  that  wholesome  sentiments  may  be  played 
upon  by  the  unscrupulous  advocates  of  unworthy  causes. 
The  appeal  for  justice  may  be  urged  as  a  cloak  for  spoliation 
and  confiscation.  Napoleon  was  able  to  shelter  his  schemes 
for  aggrandisement  under  the  plea  of  giving  liberty  to 
oppressed  peoples.  A  war  which  is  advocated  on  mere 
grounds  of  humanity,  and  which  is  not  occasioned  by  a 
definite  cause  of  quarrel  between  two  nations,  would  be 
difficult  to  account  for,  if  it  were  impossible  to  detect  the 
active  play  of  some  selfish  interest  as  the  underlying  motive. 

More  dangerous  still  is  the  course  of  the  politician  who 
merely  appeals  to  the  interests  of  his  supporters.  It  is 
unnecessary  to  lay  stress  on  these  interests,  if  he  is  really 
advocating  something  that  is  in  the  interest  of  the  whole 
community,  the  sacredness  of  national  obligations  and  the 
importance  of  maintaining  what  the  nation  has  guaranteed, 
as  the  case  can  be  put  more  effectively  on  higher  grounds. 
When  prominence  is  habitually  given  in  political  discus- 
sions to  the  consideration  of  mere  interest,  it  is  generally 
because  the  interests  of  particular  sections  of  the  com- 
munity are  being  kept  in  view,  to  the  disregard  of  the 
interest  of  other  sections  and  classes.  Such  a  line  of 
argument  will  easily  degenerate  into  a  mere  appeal  to 
selfishness.  It  tends  to  the  cultivation  on  the  part  of  a 
section  or  class  of  an  exaggerated  sense  of  its  own  import- 
ance in  the  life  of  the  realm.  The  rivalry  between  the 
landed  and  moneyed  interests,  at  the  close  of  the  seven- 
teenth and  beginning  of  the  eighteenth  centuries,  had  a 
most  unwholesome  influence  on  political  life.  The  landed 
interest  were  jealous  of  the  manner  in  which  the  moneyed 
interest  escaped  the  burden  of  taxation,  the  moneyed 
interest  resented  the  smallness  of  the  share  they  possessed 
in  the  directing  of  public  policy,  and  they  endeavoured  to 


111.]  STATESMANSHIP  AND  STATESCRAFT  65 

remedy  wliat  they  regarded  as  an  injustice,  by  unscrupulous 
bribery.  The  advocacy  of  the  claims  of  particular  classes 
or  sections  of  the  community  gives  rise  to  jealousy  ;  it  has 
no  suggestion  to  offer  for  any  constructive  policy  ;  and, 
by  creating  increased  irritation  and  mutual  suspicion,  it 
causes  friction  in  every  part  of  the  mechanism  of  society. 
The  adept  in  statescraft,  who  makes  use  of  these  instru- 
ments to  play  on  the  passions  of  the  citizens,  may  succeed 
in  carrying  out  the  particular  objects  that  he  has  in  view 
at  the  time,  but  he  is  a  curse  to  the  country,  since  his 
influence  tends  to  render  the  people  less  fit  for  the  harmoni- 
ous exercise  of  the  privilege  of  self-government.  For  such 
corruption  of  public  opinion  on  political  affairs,  when  a 
people  are  thoroughly  imbued  with  it,  there  seems  to  be  no 
remedy  ;  it  is  the  most  obvious  symptom  of  political 
decadence. 


f?€  THE  FUNCTIONS  OF  GOVERNMENT  [ch. 


PART    II 
NATIONAL  ECONOMIC  LIFE 

CHAPTER   I 

THE   FUNCTIONS   OF   GOVERNMENT 

1.  Justice  and  Expediency 

{a)  Although  the  enforcement  of  right  is  the  supreme 
consideration  in  all  matters  of  State,  it  can  never  be  the  only 
consideration  ;  other  points  have  to  be  taken  into  account 
as  well.  Justice  is  retrospective,  and  deals  out  punishment 
to  brand  a  crime  committed  ;  in  its  simplest  form  it  is 
merely  retributive — an  eye  for  an  eye,  a  tooth  for  a  tooth, 
and  a  life  for  a  life.  The  plain  man  thinks  it  fair  that  the 
individual  who  has  been  guilty  of  wrong  should  be  done  by, 
as  he  did  ;  and  the  simple  exaction  of  an  equivalent  seems 
to  meet  the  case.  The  crime  has  been  done,  the  punish- 
ment has  been  inflicted,  and  the  incident  is  closed.  But 
there  are  many  cases  in  which  retribution  cannot  be  exacted ; 
the  beggar  who  steals  some  one's  watch  cannot  be  deprived 
of  his  own  watch  in  return,  because  he  has  none  ;  and  even 
in  cases  where  simple  retribution  is  possible,  we  may  take 
a  larger  view,  and  desire  to  inflict  punishment  in  such  a 
form  that  it  shall  be  a  deterrent  in  the  future,  as  well  as 
retribution  for  the  past.  Experience  shows  that  it  is 
possible  to  devise  forms  of  punishment  which  serve  to  be 
corrective,  so  that  the  same  person  will  not  be  likely  to 
commit  the  crime  again  ;  we  may  also  try  to  make  the 
punishment  exemplary,  so  as  to  prevent  other  people  from 


I.]  THE  PUNISHMENT  OF  CRIME  67 

committing  a  similar  offence.  When  such  probabihties  are 
taken  into  account,  considerations  of  expediency  are  allowed 
to  determine  the  form  in  which  justice  shall  be  enforced. 
Strict  criminal  justice  lies  between  man  and  man  ;  as 
concerned  with  retribution  for  the  past,  it  can  be  precise 
and  definite.  But  the  probable  effects  on  individual 
character  cannot  be  estimated  with  any  certainty  ;  when 
we  arc  trying  to  forecast  the  future,  we  cannot  lay  down 
any  course  as  absolutely  right,  but  only  as  expedient,  so 
far  as  our  reasonable  anticipations  go.  The  tendency  of 
corrective  punishments  is  to  be  less  severe  than  the  strict 
exaction  of  an  equivalent  would  be  ;  they  are  intended  to 
be  warnings  which  the  man  shall  take  to  heart  himself, 
rather  than  the  infliction  of  retribution  ;  and  justice  in 
this  case  is  tempered  with  mercy.  On  the  other  hand, 
exemplary  punishments  are  apt  to  be  more  severe  than  a 
merely  retributive  punishment  would  be  ;  they  are  intended 
to  strike  the  imagination,  and  warn  other  people  to  be 
careful.  The  public  may  demand  that  a  chauffeur  who, 
through  some  very  trivial  carelessness  with  his  car,  is 
unfortunate  enough  to  kill  a  child  on  a  road,  should  suffer 
the  extreme  penalty  for  manslaughter,  in  order  to  teach 
other  chauffeurs  a  salutary  lesson.  Corrective  and  ex- 
emplary punishments  alike  depart  from  the  strict  rule  of 
retribution  ;  and  in  the  case  of  exemplary  punishments,  the 
question  is  often  raised  whether  it  is  just  that  an  individual 
should  be  dealt  with,  not  entirely  on  his  OAvn  merits,  but  so 
that  he  is  to  some  extent  sacrificed  for  the  good  of  society. 
The  instinct  of  self-preservation  justifies  society  in  demanding 
the  sacrifice  of  the  lives  of  the  citizens  to  repel  the  attacks 
of  enemies  ;  and  the  same  instinct  comes  into  play  to 
demand  some  individual  sacrifices  for  the  sake  of  maintain- 
ing order  and  security  at  home.  The  important  point  is 
that  there  should  be  a  real  prospect  of  influencing  t!ie  public 
effectively  ;  any  appearance  of  vindictiveness,  especially 
through  the  cruelty  of  the  punishment,  tends  to  make  the 


f 

68  THE  FUNCTIONS  OF  GOVERNMENT  [ch. 

criminal  something  of  a  hero,  and  weakens  the  respect  for 
authority.  Tlie  history  of  the  Inquisition,  in  its  efforts  to 
stamp  out  heresy  with  the  aid  of  the  civil  power,  serves 
to  illustrate  the  difficulty  which  attaches  to  exemplary 
punishments  and  prevents  them  from  being  really  effective. 
Even,  then,  in  carrying  out  the  work  of  the  State  in 
repressing  crime,  there  are  manj'^  points  in  regard  to  which 
different  opinions  may  easily  arise  as  to  what  is  expedient — 
what  sort  of  punishment  will  suffice  as  a  corrective,  and 
when  it  is  necessary  to  make  an  example.  It  is  not  easy 
to  form  a  sound  opinion  as  to  what  is  wise,  and  therefore 
right,  under  any  given  circumstances ;  the  evils  of  Lynch 
Law  are  that  no  attempt  is  made  to  exercise  a  wise  discrimi- 
nation, and  that  the  punishment,  when  meant  to  be  ex- 
emplary, is  so  likely  to  be  vindictive.  By  relying  on  the 
ordinary  machinery  of  the  law,  we  at  least  render  it  less 
likely  that  the  execution  of  justice  shall  be  contaminated 
by  a  desire  for  private  revenge.  The  duty  of  the  judges 
is  to  exercise  a  considerable  discretion  in  the  punishments 
inflicted,  and  to  consider  what  is  expedient  for  the  offender 
personally — according,  e.g.,  as  he  is  young  or  is  hardened — 
as  well  as  what  is  expedient  in  the  interests  of  society  as  a 
whole.  From  time  immemorial  it  has  been  recognised  that 
Christian  principle  may  be  a  safeguard  towards  reaUsing 
the  full  responsibility  of  these  duties,  and  a  help  to  doing 
them  in  an  entirely  dispassionate  manner.  The  institution 
of  Assize  sermons  may  have  come  to  be  little  more  than  a 
formality,  so  far  as  any  effect  on  the  execution  of  justice 
is  concerned,  but  it  at  least  serves  as  a  formal  recognition 
of  the  difficulty  of  weighing  the  distinct  and  conflicting 
elements  which  constitute  the  expedient,  and  the  need  of 
guidance  in  doing  it  aright.  Religious  influence  can  and 
ought  to  come  in,  not  to  sway  the  judgment  in  any  par- 
ticular direction,  but  as  an  additional  motive  to  secure  that 
this  duty  of  secular  government  shall  be  done  in  the  best 
possible  way. 


L]  EQUALITY  OF  TAXATION  69 

(6)  Questions  of  expediency  arise  even  in  connection  with 
the  administration  of  justice  ;  in  regard  to  the  other 
functions  of  the  State,  they  become  still  more  prominent. 
The  defence  of  the  covmtry  against  attack  from  without  is 
one  of  the  most  elementary  duties  of  any  government,  and 
in  order  to  determine  what  it  is  wise  to  do  for  the  sake  of 
this  object,  a  very  careful  forecast  of  the  future  is  necessary. 
The  probable  action  of  other  powers,  and  the  possibilities 
of  combination,  have  to  be  taken  into  account,  as  well  as 
the  progress  in  the  art  of  war,  and  the  weapons  of  attack 
which  are  likely  to  be  available  for  the  enemy.  The  coast 
defences,  which  might  have  sufficed  a  century  ago  when 
the  sovereignty  of  the  sea  was  undisputed — and  martello 
towers  were  supposed  to  be  gun-proof — are  obviously 
worthless  in  the  present  day.  Preparations  in  the  way  of 
fortifications,  as  well  as  in  naval  and  military  training  and 
equipment,  are  very  costly  :  all  would  agree  that  it  is 
essential  that  such  preparations  should  be  adequate  ;  but 
there  may  be  the  greatest  possible  difference  in  the  forecasts 
as  to  what  is  necessary,  and  therefore  as  to  what  is  right 
under  the  circumstances.  It  is  fundamentally  a  question 
of  what  it  is  expedient  to  do,  and  of  what  may  be  left  un- 
done wdthout  incurring  the  charge  of  criminal  recklessness. 

When,  however,  the  claims  of  the  expedient  are  being 
satisfied,  there  is  need  to  discuss  the  right  way  of  raising 
the  means  for  tliis  necessary  expenditure,  and  to  decide 
how  the  burden  shall  be  borne  by  different  sections  of  the 
community.  At  this  point  considerations  of  justice  to 
individuals  ought  to  come  in  ;  we  should  aim  at  distributing 
the  burden  so  that  there  shall  be  equality  in  the  sacrifice 
demanded  from  each  individual.^     At  best,  this  can  only 

1  Adam  Smith  appears  to  hold  that  equality  of  taxation  means  taxation 
in  accordance  with  the  benefit  received.  This  might  be  sound  if  the  principle 
ol  the  Utilitarian  State  were  accejUed,  and  e;ich  man  was  called  to  pay  for 
value  received  ;  but  taxation  is  not  levied  by  bargaining  for  a  quid  pro  quo  ;  the 
citizen  is  not  free  to  break  ofl"  the  bargain  :  he  is  compelled  to  make  a  sacrifice 
for  the  common  good. 


70  THE  FUNCTIONS  OF  GOVERNMENT  [en. 

be  secured  roughly,  and  on  the  average.  Differences  of 
temperaments  are  incalculable,  and  what  would  be  an 
intolerable  sacrifice  to  one  individual  is  of  no  account  to 
another  ;  this  is  one  reason  why  it  is  impossible  to  gauge 
the  sacrifice  involved  on  the  part  of  those  who  are  forced 
to  give  up  some  comfort  they  have  hitherto  enjoyed.  But 
apart  altogether  from  the  confusing  elements  of  personal 
predilection  and  taste,  it  is  no  easy  matter  to  decide,  for 
certain,  which  of  the  citizens  shall  be  called  upon  to  make  a 
sacrifice  in  any  particular  case.  Questions  of  the  incidence 
of  taxation  are  very  complicated  ;  those,  on  whom  the 
burden  falls  in  the  first  instance,  are  often  able  to  recoup 
themselves  to  some  extent  at  the  expense  of  other  citizens, 
and  thus  to  avoid  making  any  real  sacrifice  themselves. 
There  is  a  temptation  to  assume  that  money  which  it  is 
easy  to  collect  can  be  easily  spared  ;  this  may  be  the  high- 
wayman's view,  but  it  is  a  dangerous  principle  in  matters 
of  State.  Administrative  convenience  is  always  likely  to 
have  great  influence  on  the  government  in  the  selection 
of  any  particular  form  of  taxation.  Convenience  of 
collection  was  the  chief  reason  in  former  days  for  laying 
the  main  burden  of  taxation  on  the  landed  rather  than  the 
moneyed  classes,  though  the  former  had  much  less  oppor- 
tunity than  the  latter  to  recoup  themselves  in  any  way. 
Even  if  all  these  questions  of  detail  could  be  satisfactorily 
and  precisely  disposed  of,  we  should  still  be  confronted 
with  the  most  difficult  of  all  the  problems  of  equality  in 
taxation — How  is  it  to  be  levied  so  as  to  be  fair  to  posterity  ? 
There  is  no  doubt  that  posterity  secures  an  advantage  from 
having  the  affairs  of  the  community  handed  down  in  good 
condition  ;  but  it  is  very  difficult  to  assess,  in  terms  of 
money,  the  precise  advantage  transmitted,  while  it  is 
possible  for  each  generation  to  shift  the  burden  of  a  very 
large  portion  of  the  outlay  from  its  own  shoulders  to  those 
of  succeeding  generations.  This  can  be  most  obviously 
done  by  borrowing  ;    national  credit  can  be  employed  so 


I.]  EQUALITY  OF  TAXATION  71 

as  to  obtain  large  sums  of  money  for  immediate  use,  while 
the  obligation  to  meet  the  annual  interest  remains  to  be 
defrayed  by  coming  generations  as  well  as  by  the  citizens 
who  incurred  the  expense.  Pitt  was  strongly  of  opinion 
that  the  advantages  to  posterity  wliich  might  result  from 
a  war  were  so  problematical,  and  so  difficult  to  assess,  that 
it  was  right  for  each  generation  to  pay  its  own  way,  and 
that  the  expenses  of  a  war  should  be  met  by  taxation  raised 
within  the  year.  Under  the  glamour  of  the  magical  results 
which  were  attributed  to  the  Sinking  Fund,  this  prudent 
view  was  abandoned,  with  disastrous  results  ;  and  the 
pressure  of  indebtedness,  due  to  increased  armaments, 
seriously  hampers  the  progress  of  all  the  great  European 
nations.  It  is  also  worth  remembering  that  a  badly  devised 
Fiscal  System  may  cause  injury  to  posterity  in  another  way. 
It  the  economic  prosperity  of  the  country  is  injuriously 
affected  by  the  methods  of  taxation  adopted,  there  will  be 
less  wealth  available  for  posterity  to  draw  upon  for  every 
purpose.  It  is  unfair  to  posterity  either  to  impose  obliga- 
tions upon  it — about  which  it  cannot  be  consulted — or 
to  tap  the  sources  of  national  wealth  imprudently.  Pro- 
digality will  exist  in  public  as  well  as  in  private  life,  so  long 
as  people  are  content  to  enjoy  the  heritage  which  has  been 
handed  down  from  the  past,  and  yet  feel  no  duty  to  pass 
it  on  unimpaired,  and  no  desire  to  benefit  those  who  come 
after  them.  The  man  who  triumphantly  asks,  \'\Tiat  has 
posterity  done  for  me  ?  cannot  be  trusted  to  decide  wisely  be- 
tween the  demands  of  his  own  generation,  and  the  provision 
whicli  should  be  made  for  the  future  of  the  country. 

Under  these  circumstances  it  is  clear  that  no  cut-and- 
dried  maxim  of  what  is  equitable  in  regard  to  taxation  can 
be  laid  down  ;  the  system  which  is  fair  in  one  community 
might  be  very  oppressive  in  others.^     The   best  we  can 

1  In  a  country  sucli  as  India,  where  there  are  large  patriarchal  households, 
an  income  tax  would  fall  v  ry  heavily  on  some  men,  who.^e  married  sons  wero 
liTing  under  the  parental  roof  and  not  in  homes  of  their  own. 


72  THE  FUNCTIONS  OF  GOVERNMENT  [ch. 

do  is  to  try  to  avoid  what  is  unfair,  both  in  the  incidence  of 
taxation  among  different  men  in  this  generation,  and  as 
between  the  present  generation  and  posterity.  There  is  a 
continual  temptation  to  be  over-sanguine  and  to  run  the 
risk  of  sacrificing  the  future,  so  that  we  should  welcome  any 
elevating  influences  which  can  be  brought  to  bear,  to  induce 
men  to  make  prudent  forecasts. 

(c)  There  are  still  greater  diflSculties  in  laying  down 
principles  as  to  the  discharge  of  another  recognised  function 
of  government,  that  of  promoting  the  welfare  of  the  com- 
munity— the  advance  of  the  subjects  in  health,  wealth, 
and  godliness.  The  welfare  of  society  is  not  a  very  precise 
conception,  for  it  has  many  distinct  aspects — material, 
intellectual,  artistic,  and  moral — and  these  various  elements 
carmot  be  easily  co-ordinated,  even  for  some  one  country. 
Our  aim  ought  to  be  high :  on  the  one  hand,  to  make  the 
most  of  the  material  resources  of  the  land,  and  on  the  other, 
to  make  the  most  of  the  inhabitants  and  to  improve  them 
in  health  and  character  and  skill.  But  if  this  aim  is  to  have 
a  direct  practical  bearing,  it  must  not  be  too  much  in  the 
air,  or  assume  the  existence  of  human  beings  of  a  very 
different  type  from  those  we  know :  what  is  fanciful  may 
be  very  pretty,  but  it  can  give  us  no  direct  guidance  from 
day  to  day  in  actual  life.  Still,  the  conception  of  welfare 
need  not  be  merely  vague,  as  we  render  it  more  definite 
on  one  side  after  another,  if  we  take  stock  of  the  best  that 
has  been  attained  by  any  of  the  peoples — in  material 
prosperity,  or  scientific  and  artistic  achievements,  or  in 
moral  character — and  seek  to  make  the  best  which  each 
has  attained  in  its  own  line,  our  own.  Such  a  conception 
of  welfare,  compounded  from  the  actual  experience  of 
other  peoples,  can  be  brought  into  direct  practical  bearing  ; 
it  is  not  a  mere  dream,  but  something  that  other  people 
have  rendered  actual,  and  that  we  can  imitate  if  we  will  be 
at  the  trouble.  By  far  the  greatest  part  of  the  progress 
which  Englishmen  made  from  the  eleventh  to  the  eighteenth 


I.]       THE  WELFARE  OF  THE  COUNTRY       73 

century  was  directly  due  to  the  conscious  imitation  of 
otlier  peoples,  in  some  art  or  practice  in  which  our  fore- 
fathers felt  they  were  behind  ;  and  the  consideration  of 
the  conditions  of  life  which  obtain  in  other  countries  will 
help  us  to  form  a  practicable  conception  of  improved 
welfare  for  ourselves.  The  various  elements  of  welfare 
are  so  different,  and  the  different  peoples  of  the  world  are 
so  differently  fitted  to  appreciate  and  enjoy  them,  that 
any  attempt  to  devise  a  working  conception  for  mankind 
as  a  whole  would  be  a  failure ;  it  would  contain  too  many 
incompatible  elements.  Still,  we  can  form  a  definite 
view  as  to  the  manner  in  which  the  power  of  the  State  can 
be  brought  to  bear  on  the  people  of  any  one  country-  so  as 
to  improve  the  type  of  character  or  to  increase  the  national 
prosperity.  The  current  conception  of  national  welfare  will 
not,  however,  be  elevating  or  inspiring  unless  it  is  rooted  in 
a  belief  in  Right  and  Righteousness  as  supreme  over  all  the 
affairs  of  men.^  This  is  the  element  which  has  made  the 
patriotism  of  the  Israelite  of  old  a  model  for  the  patriotism 
of  all  nations  for  all  times.  Christianity  has  set  before  us 
a  far  higher  ideal  of  personal  duty,  but  has  not  given  us  a 
better  conception  of  a  well-ordered  earthly  society,  regulat- 
ing mundane  concerns  and  influencing  all  mankind.^  The 
Prophets  believed  in  God  as  righteous  ;  and  looked  eagerly 
for  the  purifying  of  their  own  nation,  and  its  advance  in 
prosperity  and  power,  as  the  means  of  fulfilling  a  divine 
destiny  in  the  world.  The  Psalms  are  the  songs  of  a  people 
who  were  conscious  of  a  divine  mission  to  mankind,  and 
who  felt,  just  for  this  very  reason,  that  it  was  a  duty  to 
hold  their  own.  '  Every  nation,'  as  Maurice  writes, 
'  should  be  an  armed  nation,  not  because  it  regards  any  other 
with  hostility,  not  because  it  imagines  that  any  other  has 
an  interest  in  assaulting  it,  but  because  its  own  soil,  its  own 
language,  its  own  laws,  its  own  government  are  given  to  it, 
and  aie  beyond  all  measure  precious  to  it.  Any  contempt  of 
1  See  abave,  pp.  43,  46.  *  See  below,  p.  200. 


74  THE  FUNCTIONS  OF  GOVERNMENT  [ch. 

foreigners,  any  notion  that  we  are  better  tiian  they,  is  so 
much  deduction  from  our  strength,  so  much  waste  in 
braggadocio  of  the  valour  which  is  needed  for  the  day  of 
battle.  Reverence  for  the  rights  and  freedom  of  every 
nation  is  what  we  should  earnestly  cherish  if  we  would  be 
true  defenders  of  our  own.  On  the  other  hand,  I  carmot  set 
much  store  by  a  man's  interest  in  the  well-being  of  strangers 
who  is  indifferent  about  the  land  of  his  fathers.'  ^  The  love 
of  one's  ovm  people  is  not  lost  in  a  love  of  humanity.  The 
area  which  is  under  one  political  and  administrative  system, 
and  where  similar  conditions  with  regard  to  the  employ- 
ment of  labour  and  capital,  and  similar  obligations  upon 
the  taxpaj'ers  obtain  throughout,  is  to  be  regarded  as  one 
coimtry  with  aims  of  its  own.  In  each  country,  as  thus 
defined,  the  government  exercises  a  supreme  authority  in 
shaping  economic  life.  For  good  or  for  evil,  the  conven- 
tions and  institutions  of  society  have  an  extraordinary 
influence  upon  the  material  prosperity  of  the  country  and 
the  well-being  of  the  inhabitants  ;  and  it  is  therefore  of 
supreme  importance  that  this  enormous  power  should  be 
deliberately  and  S3'stematically  brought  to  bear,  and  that 
the  economic  policy  should  be  carefully  thought  out  and 
sound. 

The  matter  becomes  more  precise  when  we  take  account 
of  a  somewhat  fine  distinction  :  the  welfare  of  the  country 
should  be  considered  as  the  affair  of  an  organised  com- 
munity, not  as  if  it  merely  concerned  an  aggregate  of 
individuals.  In  the  body  politic  there  is  differentiation  of 
iunction ;  in  the  body  economic  there  is  a  division  of  labour ; 
the  advantage  of  the  whole  is  attained  by  the  co-operation 
of  all  the  parts  ;  but  they  are  each  highly  specialised  and 
by  no  means  interchangeable.  In  so  far  as  the  country 
advances  in  welfare,  all  the  individuals  may  share  in  the 
improved  conditions,  but  it  is  an  error  to  aim  at  the  welfare 
of  the  individual,  primarily  and  directly,  as  if  he  lived  apart 

1  Social  MoralUy.  p.  222. 


I.]       THE  WELFARE  OF  THE  COUNTRY       75 

from  society.  The  well-being  of  the  individual  follows  as 
a  conscquenee  of  social  welfare  ;  but  it  cannot  be  wiscl}' 
sought  apart  from  social  welfare.  When  we  are  endeavour- 
ing to  realise  the  welfare  of  the  country,  we  are  forced  to 
recognise  that  the  maxim  of  strict  justice  to  individuals  is 
not  relevant.  It  cannot  be  insisted  upon  as  an  absolute 
guide,  or  taken  as  giving  the  last  word  ;  it  is  even  more 
difficult  to  ai)ply  in  connection  with  this  function  of  govern- 
ment, than  in  regard  to  the  infliction  of  punishment  or  the 
levying  of  taxation.  In  the  changes  which  occur  in  the 
progress  of  society,  it  is  impossible  to  be  always  inticrbi^ing 
such  readjustments  that  each  individual  shall  be  regular!}' 
treated  exactly  like  every  one  else.  We  cannot  hope  to 
give  effect  to  positive  justice,  but  at  best  only  to  avoid 
serious  injustice,  and  to  do  nothing  which  shall  prevent  any 
individual  from  realising  his  legitimate  expectations  of 
what  he  is  entitled  to  in  the  existing  order.  Individuals 
perform  different  functions  in  society  ;  the  parts  they  play 
are  distinct,  the  services  they  render  are  not  all  equivalent ; 
some  are  of  greater  importance  and  some  less,  and  therefore 
it  is  not  possible  to  abide  by  a  fixed  rule  and  to  treat  all 
individuals  as  if  they  were  alike.  The  insistence  on 
equality  between  individuals  may  even  become  positively 
injurious  if  it  leads  to  efforts  to  keep  all  individuals  alike  ; 
measures  imposed  with  a  view  to  the  maintenance  of 
equality  may  prove  to  be  inconsistent  with  the  liberty  of 
each  citizen  to  take  advantage  of  the  opportunities  within 
liis  reach  for  the  development  of  his  powers.  The  attempt 
to  enforce  equality  of  treatment  among  individuals  must 
tend  towards  the  maintenance  of  a  dead  level,  and  of  stereo- 
typed mediocrity.  Freedom  for  differentiation  and  for  the 
development  of  individual  powers  is  essential  to  tliq  welfare 
of  the  community  ;  but  such  freedom  gives  scope  for  in- 
equalities to  arise  and  to  be  perpetuated. 

(d)  The  welfare  of  societ'.-,  and  the  means  of  realising  it, 
are  matters  about  which  Chnhlianity  has  no  specific  teaching 


76  THE  FUNCTIONS  OP  GOVERNMENT  [ca 

to  give.  Its  appeal  is  addressed  primarily  and  directly  to 
individuals,  and  it  holds  out  the  hope  of  an  undying  life. 
The  welfare  of  society,  in  material  prosperity  or  in  human 
culture,  is  secular  and  mundane  ;  and  there  is  no  special 
Christian  doctrine  as  to  the  best  means  towards  this  end. 
This  is  the  business  of  the  State,  and  not  specially  that  of 
the  Church  :  the  duty  of  the  Church  is  merely  indirect,  and 
consists  in  using  her  influence,  as  far  as  possible,  to  secure 
that  the  duties  of  the  State  shall  be  done  effectively,  and  as 
in  the  sight  of  God,  by  the  persons  who  are  responsible  for 
discharging  them.  Christian  influence  should  be  brought 
to  bear  in  order  to  reinforce  the  dictates  of  worldly  wisdom 
by  means  of  a  higher  motive.  It  is  a  Christian  duty  to 
make  the  most  of  all  the  things  which  God  has  created  and 
entrusted  to  human  care.  It  is  a  Christian  duty  to  do  our 
best  for  the  service  of  man,  and  especially  for  elevating  his 
character  and  improving  his  powers.  Tlie  opinions  of 
Christians,  as  to  what  is  beneficial  and  what  is  injurious 
to  the  welfare  of  society,  do  not  necessarily  differ  from 
the  opinions  of  prudent  men  of  any  creed  or  of  none  :  there 
is  no  specially  Christian  programme  in  regard  to  social  or 
economic  life.  Our  religion  supplies  the  highest  motive  for 
endeavouring  to  realise  the  welfare  of  the  country,  by  the 
means  which  ordinary  prudence  suggests,  but  it  does  not 
prescribe  means  of  its  own.  The  doctrine  of  Christ  is 
universal  and  for  all  time,  while  the  realisation  of  human 
welfare  is  contingent  on  varying  conditions  and  circum- 
stances. Just  because  these  efforts  depend  on  calculations 
of  what  is  wise  and  forecasts  of  what  is  probable,  there  may 
be  the  greatest  variety  of  opinion  as  to  the  wisdom  of  any 
particular  course  and  the  results  that  are  to  be  looked  for 
either  immediately  or  ultimately.  Christianity  gives  a  new 
motive  for  the  sacrifices  which  are  necessary — especially 
the  sacrifice  of  the  present  to  the  future — if  the  welfare  of 
the  country  is  to  be  steadily  pursued. 
The  consideration  of  the  true  relation  of  Christianity  to 


I.]       CHRISTIAN  INFLUENCE  ON  POLITICAL  LIFE       Ti 

affairs  of  State  may  also  help  us  to  see  that  Christian 
influence  can  be  brought  to  bear  so  as  to  diminish  the 
friction  and  irritation  of  political  life,  and  to  enable  the 
machinery  of  State  to  run  more  smoothly.  Public  business 
may  be  carried  on  in  a  Christian  or  in  an  unchristian  spirit, 
and  the  unclu'istian  atmosphere  is  unwholesome.  There 
is  often  a  temptation  to  condemn  those  who  differ  from  us 
on  political  affairs,  as  morally  wrong  ;  it  is  particularly 
tempting  for  an  earnest  man  who  is  eagerly  advocating 
some  particular  reform,  to  allow  himself  to  suppose  that 
those  who  oppose  him  are  indifferent  to  the  end  he  has  in 
view,  and  not  merely  doubtful  as  to  the  wisdom  of  the  means 
he  recommends.  There  are  many  men  who  regard  it  as 
axiomatic  that  the  reduction  in  the  number  of  public-houses 
would  diminish  the  temptations  to  intemperance  ;  they 
find  it  difficult  to  have  patience  with  the  protest  that 
intemperance  is  more  closely  connected  with  the  character 
than  with  the  number  of  the  houses.  But  it  is  at  least 
conceivable  that  in  a  village  where  two  or  three  public- 
houses  are  suppressed,  and  the  one  which  is  left  is  thereby 
enabled  to  provide  greatly  increased  attractions,  the  temp- 
tations to  intemperance  may  be  positively  increased. 
The  protest  against  the  hasty  reduction  of  numbers  may 
be  honestly  made  by  a  man  who  is  genuinely  desirous  that 
the  cause  of  temperance  should  be  advanced.  The 
advocates  of  a  measure  are  always  in  danger  of  attaching 
an  exaggerated  importance  to  one  particular  change : 
none  of  us  has  a  right  to  assume  that  the  means  which  he 
thinks  the  best  for  attaining  a  given  object,  is  even  a 
certain  way  of  securing  it,  not  to  speak  of  being  the  only 
means.  It  is  a  Christian  duty  to  doubt  our  own  infallibility, 
and  it  is  certainly  uncharitable  to  take  for  granted  that 
men  who  differ  from  us  about  the  legislative  means  are 
therefore  quite  careless  about  the  importance  of  the  object 
aimed  at.  Still  more  unchristian  is  the  assumption,  in  cases 
where  public  and  private  interests  are  closely  intertwined, 


78  THE  FUNCTIONS  OF  GOVERNMENT  [ch. 

tliat  a  man's  view  on  public  matters  is  necessarily 
determined  by  considerations  of  private  gain.  It  is  easy  to 
bandy  accusations  of  self-seeking,  and  to  assert  that  any 
one  who  does  not  take  our  view  of  what  is  beneficial  or 
what  is  injurious  is  Avholly  indifferent  to  the  welfare  of 
society.  But  forecasts  of  the  future,  and  of  the  probable 
effect  of  any  proposed  legislation,  are  primarily  intellectual ; 
because  another  man's  estimate  differs  from  ours,  we  have 
no  right  to  assume  that  his  mind  is  distorted  by  moral 
obliquity  ;  it  may  be  so  ;  but,  on  the  other  hand,  he  may 
have  reached  his  conclusion  dispassionately  and  without  any 
selfish  bias.  When  we  read  the  story  of  the  introduction 
of  measures — such  as  the  granting  of  allowances  at  the 
close  of  last  century  to  supplement  wages — which  seem  to 
have  been  very  mischievous,  we  may  yet  find  it  impossible 
to  blame  those  who  devised  them  for  carelessness  or  guilt 
of  any  kind.  Christian  charity  demands  that  those  we 
criticise  should  have  the  benefit  ot  any  doubt,  and  that,  in 
all  controversy,  full  allowance  should  be  made  for  the 
possibilit}'-  of  wide  differences  of  opinion  on  intellectual 
grounds  ;  on  all  such  points  it  is  possible  that  further 
examination  of  the  facts  and  of  the  probabilities  may 
help  men  to  be  of  one  mind.  The  partisan  is  ready  to  assert 
that  every  one  on  the  other  side  is  indifferent  to  the  welfare 
of  the  country,  and  is  only  actuated  by  selfish  motives ; 
but  this  crude  judgment  may  have  its  foundation  in 
unconscious  self-revelation,  since  it  is  natural  to  attribute 
to  others  motives  and  conduct  that  are  habitual  to  our- 
selves. At  all  events,  it  is  not  only  a  Christian  duty  to 
endeavour  to  pursue  the  welfare  of  the  country  earnestly 
and  dispassionately,  but  to  try  to  believe  that  others,  who 
differ  from  us  in  opinion,  are  honestly  working,  according  to 
their  lights,  for  the  same  end. 

As  we  enter  on  the  discussion  of  the  action  of  the  govern- 
ment in  regard  to  social  questions,  we  may  desist  from  any 
attempt  to  specify  a  definite  Christian  influence  which 


L]  A  WELL-ORDERED  COMMUNITY  79 

ought  to  be  exercised  in  one  direction  or  another.  It  is 
a  Christian  duty  to  encourage  and  strengthen  the  hands  of 
those  who  are  working  for  the  secular  welfare  of  the  com- 
munity. By  looking  carefully  at  the  manner  in  which 
governmental  action  may  be  best  exercised,  we  can  see  more 
clearly  how  many  things  must  be  left  undone  unless  they 
are  taken  up  as  personal  duties  ;  and  it  is  in  regard  to 
these  that  specifically  Christian  principles  can  be  effectively 
brought  to  bear. 

2.  Favourable  Conditions  for  Economic  Life 

(a)  In  order  to  form  any  sound  judgment  as  to  the 
particular  acts  and  conduct  which  are  beneficial  or  injurious 
to  the  country,  it  is  necessary  to  look  a  little  more  closely 
at  welfare,  and  the  means  by  which  it  may  be  attained. 
At  first  sight,  the  whole  matter  seems  simple  enough  ; 
there  are  certain  elements  which  we  can  enumerate  as 
essential  to  our  idea  of  a  well-ordered  community.  In 
contrast  to  existing  conditions  in  Great  Britain,  we  may 
insist  that  there  ought  to  be  a  high  standard  of  comfort 
and  of  culture  for  all  the  inhabitants,  and  that  mutual 
helpfulness  instead  of  rivalry  should  characterise  their 
conduct.  We  may  aim  at  introducing  this  condition,  either 
by  a  sudden  revolution  or  by  a  succession  of  gradual 
changes  ;  but  the  vision  of  a  community  in  which  these 
conditions  shall  be  rendered  actual  shines  before  some  of  us 
as  a  social  ideal.  To  such  men,  the  only  problem  worth 
discussion  seems  to  be — How  is  this  state  of  society  to  be 
introduced  ?  But  there  is  another  question  which  it  is 
necessary  to  face — When  once  introduced,  how  is  this  state 
of  society  to  be  maintained  ?  It  is  by  no  means  plain 
that  this  matter  may  be  left  to  take  care  of  itself.  Any 
community  is  a  living  organism  with  change  going  on 
in  all  its  parts,  and  with  change  in  its  relations  to  other 
communities ;  we  cannot  assume  that  any  given  scheme 


80  THE  FUNCTIONS  OF  GOVERNMENT  [ch. 

for  society  will  always  continue  to   fit   these   changing 
conditions. 

Internal  difiiculties  might  easily  arise  which  would 
disturb  the  existing  order  and  tend  to  lower  the  standard 
of  comfort.  The  tendency  of  population  to  increase  is  only 
kept  at  bay  with  difficulty,  and  in  considering  the  various 
schemes  of  social  reconstruction  put  forward  from  time  to 
time,  it  is  not  clear  by  what  means  the  standard  of  self- 
restraint  could  be  raised  so  as  to  prevent  difficulties  from 
the  increase  of  population,  or  in  what  directions  progress 
would  be  made  so  as  to  absorb  the  population  as  it  increased.^ 

It  is  even  more  difficult  to  forecast  the  relations  in  which 
such  a  carefully  ordered  society  might  stand  to  the  rest  of 
the  world.  If  it  were  possible  to  secure  complete  isolation, 
there  might  be  no  impulse  from  without  that  would  bring 
about  changes  within  ;  but  in  the  world  as  we  know  it, 
no  community  can  live  a  prosperous  life  in  isolation  from 
the  rest  of  the  world.  It  is  at  least  possible  that  there 
might  be  occasion  to  organise  attack  or  defence  in  the  time 
to  come,  and  that,  as  the  outcome  of  hostilities,  the  com- 
munity might  have  the  opportunity  of  extending,  or  might 
on  the  other  hand  become  subject  to  another  state.  That 
developing  commercial  intercourse  might  have  great  effect 
in  modifying  the  internal  life  of  the  community  is  also 
clear.^  We  could  only  allow  ourselves  to  disregard  the 
anxiety  that  influences  from  without  might  be  the  occasion 
of  internal  changes,  on  the  supposition  that  every  country  in 
the  world  had  developed  up  to  the  same  level,  so  that  the 
whole  globe  had  entered  on  a  stationary  state  economically,' 
and  also  that  a  condition  of  universal  peace  was  so  firmly 
secured  that  no  restless  spirits  or  ambitious  adventurer 
could  upset  it. 

Since  it  is  difficult  to  contemplate  the  future  of  society  as 
stable,  and  impossible  to  guarantee  conditions  under  which 

»  See  above,  p.  3.  '  See  above,  p.  38. 

»  J.  S.  Mill,  Political  Economy  (Ashley's  edition).  Book  iv.  Ti.  p.  746. 


I.]  A  WELL-ORDERED  COMMUNITY  81 

some  particular  scheme  of  social  reorganisation  could  be 
permanently  realised,  we  are  forced  to  regard  nations  as 
organisms  growing  in  an  ever-changing  environment,  and 
to  concentrate  attention  on  the  conditions  which  render  a 
healthy  economic  life  possible  in  the  present.  From  this 
point  of  view  welfare  is  not  to  be  thought  of  as  if  it  were  the 
same  as  wealth — a  quantity  of  comforts  and  conveniences, 
or  a  mass  of  utilities  which  society  possesses — but  as  a 
quality  which  characterises  an  organism  that  is  healthy 
in  all  its  parts. 

Life  is  more  than  meat ;  welfare  includes  the  power  of 
enjoying  as  well  as  the  means  of  enjoyment ;  we  must  not 
confine  our  attention  to  dead  matter,  and  things  external 
to  man.  More  than  physical  bulwarks  are  needed  for 
national  defence :  the  wall  which  Hadrian  erected  to  prevent 
the  incursions  of  the  Picts  and  Scots  was  not  a  mere  physical 
barrier ;  its  remains  show  that  it  is  the  skeleton  of  what 
was  once  a  living  system  of  defence;  and  an  examination 
of  the  camps,  the  forts,  and  the  frequent  watch-towers  helps 
us  to  understand  how  it  was  manned.  In  the  same  way,  all 
the  equipment  and  preparation  which  is  required  for  carry- 
ing on  any  of  the  functions  of  States  effectively  and  well,  is 
to  be  thought  of,  not  as  a  mass  of  goods,  but  in  its  relation 
to  the  life  of  a  nation  or  a  country.  But  for  all  that,  earth- 
works and  masonry  are  of  primary  importance  in  a  system 
of  defence,  and  external  conditions  of  material  prosperity 
are  of  supreme  importance  for  the  enjoyment  of  welfare. 
Without  exaggerating  the  stress  to  be  laid  on  material 
equipment,  either  for  purposes  of  defence  or  as  regards  any 
other  element  in  prosperity,  we  may  certainly  say  that  it  is 
a  sine  qua  non  without  which  the  community  is  unlikely 
to  prosper  in  any  direction  :  it  is  a  matter  of  which  the 
government  ought  to  take  great  account.  Intellectual 
and  artistic  achievement  are  impossible  apart  from  leisure 
and  freedom  from  sordid  anxieties  and  activities,  and 
material  wealth  is  requisite  if  a  community  is  to  have  the 

F 


82  THE  FUNCTIONS  OF  GOVERNMENT  [ch. 

opportunity  of  enjoying  the  best  of  the  heritage  of  human 
culture.  It  is  therefore  essential  especially  to  consider 
the  conditions  which  bring  into  play  and  promote  the 
activities  of  economic  life. 

(&)  Every  community  is  made  up  of  individuals,  and  its 
life  is  carried  on  by  bringing  the  activities  of  individuals 
into  play  ;    each  separate  inliabitant  may  be  regarded  as 
one  of  the  cells  in  the  organised  system  of  the  life  of  the 
country.     It  is  by  their  energy  that  work  is  done,  and  by 
their  enterprise  that  provision  is  made  for  future  require- 
ments.    The  government  can  bring  its  influence  to  bear  on 
these  individuals  in  either  of  two  ways — either  by  compul- 
sion, or  by  the  stimulus  that  is  offered  in  the  shape  of 
reward.     Tlie  system  of  compulsion  has  been  habitual  in 
tropical  lands ;  it  is  suitable  for  a  slave  population ;  it  is 
successful,  by  means  of  greater  or  less  severity,  in  exacting 
regular  and  persistent  labour  ;   but  even  as  regards  labour 
it  is  much  less  effective  than  the  hope  of  reward.     So  far 
as  regards  the  other  great  factor  in  economic  prosperity — 
enterprise — the  pressure  of  compulsion  fails  to  elicit  it 
altogether ;    the  development  of  enterprise  in  a  despotic 
state  depends  on  the  accident  of  some  man  of  genius  being 
at  the  head  of  affairs,  either  as  the  ruler  or  as  a  powerful 
minister.     No  community,  which  depends  chiefly,  if  not 
exclusively,  on  the  power  of  compulsion,  is  likely  to  attain 
to  a  healthy  economic  life,  even  though  there  are  some  out- 
ward tokens  of  great  wealth  and  activity.     On  the  other 
hand,  the  hope  of  reward  appeals  to  free  men  ;  it  is  natural 
to  a  state  of  society  in  which  the  inhabitants  enjoy  economic 
independence  and  political  privileges.     The  gradual  change, 
from  conditions  of  compulsion  to  those  of  reward,  has  been 
characteristic  of  the  progress  of  man  in  civilisation  and  in 
freedom.     A  return  from  conditions  of  reward  to  conditions 
of  compulsion  is  only  thinkable  as  a  sign  of  decadence  ; 
it  would  mean  the  diminution  of  freedom  of  movement,  and 
of  freedom  as  to  the  use  of  time,  and  it  must  almost  certainly 


I.]  CERTAINTY  OF  REWARD  83 

involve  a  deterioration  in  personal  energy.  Under  these 
circurastanees,  communities  which  are  organised  on  the 
basis  of  compulsion,  and  the  methods  of  exercising  com- 
pulsion, may  be  left  out  of  consideration  here.  It  will 
suffice  to  consider  what  is  beneficial  to  economic  life,  in 
those  cases  where  the  State  depends  on  the  energy  and 
enterprise  of  individuals  for  securing  the  results  it  has  in 
view,  and  when  it  endeavours  to  foster  and  stimulate  them 
by  the  hope  of  reward. 

(c)  Two  conditions,  which  governments  can  maintain 
throughout  a  country,  are  of  fundamental  importance  for 
fostering  a  vigorous  economic  life.  On  the  one  hand,  there 
must  be  certainty  of  securing  the  hoped-for  reward.  If  it 
is  uncertain  whether  a  man  will  reap  the  anticipated  benefit 
or  not,  he  is  much  less  likely  to  engage  in  any  sort  of  labour 
than  he  would  otherwise  be ;  but  the  importance  of 
certainty  of  expectation  is  much  more  noticeable  in  regard 
to  enterprise,  since  that  involves  the  sacrifice  of  present 
possessions  for  the  sake  of  advantages  which  can  only 
accrue  in  a  more  or  less  distant  future.  There  are,  of 
course,  many  physical  risks  against  which  it  is  impossible 
for  the  goveinment  to  guard  in  any  way  ;  but  in  all  those 
matters  which  lie  under  its  control,  public  authority  will 
be  wise  to  foster  this  certainty  of  expectation.  Wliere  there 
is  a  high  degree  of  certainty,  men  may  be  willing  to  wait  for 
a  long-deferred  reward  ;  they  may  even  engage  in  under- 
takings from  which  they  will  reaj)  no  personal  rew-ard,  if 
they  are  able  to  count  that  advantage  will  accrue  to  their 
descendants.  The  planting  of  trees,  and  the  sinking  of 
capital  in  draining  or  other  costly  improvements,  is  habitu- 
ally undertaken  at  great  expense  by  private  individuals 
with  no  hope  of  personal  gain,  but  simply  because  of  their 
confidence  that  their  children  or  grandchildren  will  be 
better  off.  Such  far-sighted  use  of  material  resources,  by 
individuals  at  their  own  risk,  would  be  seriously  checked 
if  there  was  reason  to  anticipate  that  the  long  deferred 


84  THE  FUNCTIONS  OF  GOVERNMENT  [oh. 

advantage,  when  it  arose,  would  not  be  reaped  by  those  for 
whom  it  was  intended. 

The  second  condition  is  that  the  individual  should  be  as 
free  as  possible  to  take  advantage  of  any  opportunities  of 
using  his  powers,  or  the  things  he  controls,  in  the  way  that 
seems  to  him  most  advantageous.  If  he  has  no  choice  as  to 
the  manner  in  which  he  exercises  his  powers,  and  uses  his 
goods,  he  will  make  no  effort  to  use  them  in  a  way  that  shall 
be  more  advantageous  to  society.  If  he  is  on  the  alert  to 
note  what  the  requirements  of  society  are,  and  if  he  has  the 
opportunity  of  turning  his  energies  into  those  directions 
which  meet  these  requirements,  he  will  see  his  way  to 
obtain  a  larger  reward,  because  his  action  renders  a  greater 
service  to  the  community  by  being  turned  into  this  new 
direction.  It  has  been  by  an  infinite  number  of  experi- 
ments, undertaken  by  private  individuals  in  the  hope  that 
a  gain  would  accrue,  that  new  routes  of  commerce  have  been 
opened  up,  new  methods  of  agriculture  adopted,  and  new 
processes  of  manufacture  introduced.  Thousands  of  these 
experiments  have  been  utter  failures.  The  resultant  loss 
has  fallen  primarily  on  the  individuals  concerned,  and  the 
cost  to  society  has  been  small ;  but  subsequent  experiments 
have  been  more  successful,  and  society  has  secured  enor- 
mously increased  power  for  controlling  natural  forces  and 
for  working  up  materials  furnished  by  nature. 

These  two  social  conditions  for  vigorous  economic  life 
have  been  most  effectively  secured  by  governments  which 
maintain  a  right  of  private  property  in  land  and  in  the 
other  requisites  of  production.  The  right  to  possess 
implies  a  right  to  exclusive  control,  and  therefore  a  right  to 
use  in  the  way  that  the  possessor  deems  desirable.  The 
prospect  of  transmitting  improved  fortunes  to  their  children 
has  proved  the  means  of  inducing  men  to  enter  on  great 
undertakings,  which  could  not  result  in  anything  but  loss 
to  themselves  personally  in  the  course  of  their  own  lives. 
The  freedom  of  individuals  to  use  their  possessions  as  they 


I.]  LIMITATIONS  TO  RIGHTS  OF  PROPERTY  85 

chose  has  rendered  it  possible  for  the  economic  energies  of 
the  country  to  be  turned  into  a  vast  number  of  directions, 
some  of  which  might  have  been  overlooked  by  the  most 
far-seeing  minister  of  economics.  In  a  free  country, 
organised  on  the  basis  of  expectation  of  reward,  the 
institution  of  private  property  seems  to  be  essential  to  the 
vigour  of  economic  life  and  the  maintenance  of  prosperity. 


3.  Grounds  for  State  Interference 

(a)  Individual  property  is  not  primitive,  and  in  many 
parts  of  tne  world  private  property  in  land  is  unknown. 
The  institution  has  no  such  sacredness  as  if  it  depended 
on  some  inherent  natural  right ;  ^  its  advantages  and  dis- 
advantages, in  all  its  forms,  ought  to  be  freely  canvassed 
according  to  their  bearing  on  the  welfare  of  society. 
Private  property  has  come  to  be  recognised  in  the  progress 
of  society  as  the  best  means  of  calling  out  human  activity, 
and  as  essential  for  the  welfare  of  communities  of  free  men  ; 
but  the  precise  manner  and  terms  on  which  property  is 
held  in  any  community  have  been  laid  down  by  the  law  of 
that  land.  There  is  no  principle  of  universal  obligation 
throughout  the  world  ;  the  law  of  one  country  differs  from 
that  of  another.  The  Land  System  and  Land  Laws  of 
Scotland  are  very  different  both  in  principle  and  in  details 
from  those  of  England.  The  fabric  of  civil  law  exists  to 
determine  and  define  with  precision  what  proprietary  rights, 
in  lands  or  goods,  any  individual  is  entitled  to  exercise 
with  the  authority  of  the  State.  But  it  is  obvious  that  the 
State,  which  has  given  the  title  to  enjoy  private  property, 
may  be  justified  in  modifying  the  exercise  of  these  rights, 
or  even  in  resuming  them  altogether.  The  State  has 
granted  a  monopoly,  and  may  be  perfectly  justified  in 
buying  the  monopoUst  out  and  using  the  property  in  another 
fashion.     On  the  right  for  the  State  to  resume  on  proper 

»  See  below,  p.  194. 


86  THE  FUNCTIONS  OF  GOVERNMENT  [ch. 

terms  what  the  State  has  granted,  there  need  be  no  dispute  ; 
but  questions  arise  as  to  the  occasions  and  conditions  on 
wlii -h  it  is  wise  for  the  government  to  interfere.  There  is 
difBculty  in  seeing  how  far  interference  in  any  particular 
case  will  be  beneficial  to,  and  how  far  it  will  be  injurious  to, 
the  welfare  of  the  community.  It  is  not  lil^ely  that,  in  our 
complicated  English  system,  any  governmental  action  will 
be  either  wholly  and  entirely  good  in  its  effects,  or  wholly 
and  entirely  bad  ;  there  must  be  immense  difficulty  in 
weighing  the  prospective  good  against  the  prospective  evil 
in  any  particular  case,  and  it  is  only  possible  here  to  indicate 
some  of  the  considerations  which  may  have  to  be  taken  into 
account. 

(6)  The  right  to  use  on  the  part  of  an  individual  is 
exclusive,  not  only  against  other  private  persons,  but 
against  the  State  also.  If  this  right  is  exercised  by  a 
private  person  to  the  detriment  of  the  community,  it  may 
certainly  be  resumed,  after  adequate  compensation  to  the 
individual,  so  as  to  be  put  by  the  State  to  a  better  use,  and 
one  that  subserves  the  welfare  of  the  community  better. 
The  government  is  obviously  justified  in  compulsorily 
buying  out  the  landowner  of  an  estate  which  is  yielding 
ordinary  crops,  if  it  lies  in  a  position  where  it  is  desirable 
to  erect  fortifications  for  national  defence.  This  principle 
may  also  be  acted  upon,  not  only  for  political  objects,  but 
on  strictly  economic  grounds,  and  for  the  prevention  of  the 
relative  waste  of  national  resources.  If  land  is  used  as  a 
deer  forest,  it  may  yield  a  large  rental  to  the  proprietor  ; 
but  the  government  may  be  clear  that  the  interests  of  the 
public  would  be  better  served  if  it  were  planted  with  forest 
trees,  and  may  be  wise  to  buy  out  the  landowner  with  this 
purpose  in  view.  The  only  justification  that  is  really  needed 
for  such  action  is  the  strong  assurance,  amounting  to 
practical  certainty,  that  the  land  will  be  better  used  by  the 
government  than  by  the  individual  proprietor,  and  that 
the  welfare  of  the  community  will  be  really  promoted  by 


l]  relative  waste  of  land  87 

the  change.  When  a  great  pohtical  object  is  in  view,  the 
decision  may  be  comparatively  easy  ;  the  particular  piece 
of  property  is  specially  wanted  and  must  be  secured  if 
possible,  and  at  any  cost ;  but  there  is  much  greater 
difficulty  when  the  problem  is  one  of  preventing  the  relative 
waste  of  national  resources,  by  turning  them  to  a  better 
use.  The  question  has  arisen  in  a  very  practical  form  in 
connection  with  the  agitation  for  small  holdings,  and,  while 
it  is  doubtful  how  far  small  holders  can  compete  with 
large  capitalists,  they  have  their  best  chance  in  those 
branches  of  farming  which  are  most  remunerative  at 
present.  The  difficulty  of  managing  small  holdings  was 
recognised  as  very  great  when  the  subject  was  examined 
by  a  parliamentary  committee  in  1843  ;  and  it  is  specially 
necessary  to  guard  against  the  possible  exhaustion  of  the 
soil  by  careless  tenants.  It  appears  to  be  generally  assumed 
that  when  undertaken  by  public  bodies  this  system  must 
be  so  managed  as  to  be  remunerative  to  the  State,  and  that 
the  tenants  of  small  holdings  need  not  be  subsidised  at 
public  expense.  There  is  much  to  be  said  for  trying  to 
render  them  independent  of  any  proprietor,  but  it  is  not 
clear  that  they  will  do  better  under  the  State  than  under 
private  management.  Desirable  as  the  change  might  be, 
the  upsetting  of  the  existing  use  of  the  land,  by  tenant 
farmers  and  labourers,  appears  to  many  people  to  be 
unwise,  until  the  probability  that  the  welfare  of  the  com- 
munity will  be  increa.sed  by  this  new  departure  is  more 
clearly  established.  The  compulsory  purchase  of  land 
under  these  circumstances  is  more  difficult  to  justify  than 
in  cases  where  there  is  a  practical  certainty  that  advantage 
will  accrue  to  the  public. 

What  is,  however,  a  matter  of  supreme  importance  for 
the  welfare  of  the  community,  is  that  the  State  should  not 
infringe  its  own  guarantee,  or  fail  to  recognise  the  title  of 
the  proprietor  for  compensation.  This  is  essential,  not 
for  the  benefit  of  private  persons,  but  for  the  credit  of  the 


88  THE  FUNCTIONS  OF  GOVERNMENT  [ch. 

State.  In  so  far  as  there  is  the  shghtest  breach  of  pubHc 
faith  with  individuals,  there  is  a  risk  that  the  confidence  of 
all  members  of  the  community,  in  the  certainty  of  enjoying 
the  rewards  of  energy  or  enterprise,  will  be  to  some  extent 
shaken  ;  the  economic  vigour  of  the  country  will  then  be 
prejudicially  affected  in  every  direction.  Any  action  on 
the  part  of  the  government  that  introduces  fresh  elements 
of  uncertainty  into  the  expectation  of  reward  diminishes 
the  stimulus  to  activity  on  the  part  of  the  people  of  the 
country.  In  retrospect  it  seems  probable  that  the 
£20,000,000  which  was  distributed  among  slave  owners 
in  1834,  was  an  inadequate  compensation,  in  view  of  the 
difficulty  which  was  found  in  managing  estates  under  the 
new  system  ;  and  that  the  checkered  story  of  the  West 
Indian  ^  and  South  African  colonies  ^  since  that  time  has 
been  partly  due  to  the  shock  which  was  then  given  to  the 
confidence  of  colonial  investors  in  the  wisdom  and  fairness 
of  the  British  Government. 

(c)  Pohtical  considerations  may  be  often  adduced  for 
interfering  with  the  use  of  capital,  and  preventing  pro- 
prietors from  using  their  wealth  in  ways  which  would  be 
lucrative.  It  may  be  right  to  forbid  the  carrying  on  of 
certain  industries  or  branches  of  commerce  at  all :  the 
prohibitions  of  opium  dens,  and  of  the  manufacture  and 
sale  of  firearms  and  materials  for  war  for  possible  enemies 
to  use,  are  obviously  justified  by  a  consideration  of  the 
welfare  of  the  community.  It  may  also  be  desirable  to 
prohibit  the  carrying  on  of  a  trade  at  such  times  and  in  such 
a  fashion  as  to  waste  natural  resources  :  there  have  been 
good  grounds  for  regulating  the  Alaska  seal  trade,  and, 
through  lack  of  regulation,  the  timber  of  many  districts  has 
been  recklessly  destroyed.  But  the  State  may  also  be  well 
advised  to  endeavour  to  guide  the  energies  of  the  nation 
into  some  direction  that  is  beneficial  to  the  public,  when  it 

»  J.  N.  Daltou,  The  Cruise  of  U.  M.S.  '  Bacchante,'  i.  p.  117. 
'  EgertOD,  British  Colonial  I'olicy,  p.  277. 


I.]  ECONOMIC  POLICY  89 

is  one  that  private  enterprise  cannot  be  trusted  to  take. 
Rewards  may  be  offered  in  any  of  several  ways — by  the 
granting  of  concessions,  or  by  subsidies  of  different  kinds 
— in  order  to  attract  private  capital  into  directions  where 
it  serves  a  public  purpose.  Such  concessions  have  been 
granted  to  steamboat  companies  to  establish  routes  for 
the  more  speedy  conveyance  of  mails,  or  for  the  building  of 
vessels  which  would  be  available  for  transport  if  it  were 
requisite  for  military  purposes. 

{d}  The  economic  life  of  a  community  is  so  important, 
that  it  is  desirable  that  the  government  should  have  a 
policy,  and  co-ordinate  the  energies  of  the  nation  in  such  a 
way  as  to  secure  the  best  result.  The  free  play  of  private 
capital  brings  about  a  development  of  different  sides  of 
economic  life  in  a  haphazard  fashion ;  but  if  a  careful 
forecast  is  made  of  the  requirements  of  the  country  as  a 
whole,  it  is  possible  to  introduce  a  conscious  co-operation 
that  shall  secure  the  result  with  less  friction  and  waste. 
Serious  risk  arises  in  leaving  such  a  matter  as  the  food 
supply  of  the  country  entirely  to  chance,^  instead  of  en- 
deavouring to  minimise  the  causes  that  render  it  fluctuating 
or  threaten  to  cut  it  off.  In  an  industrial  State,  it  is 
requisite  that  there  should  be  a  steady  supply  of  materials, 
and  this  is  a  matter  of  public  concern  in  regard  to  which 
private  individuals  cannot  be  trusted  to  take  the  necessary 
steps.  It  may  be  possible,  by  means  of  treaties  with  other 
powers,  to  enter  into  advantageous  arrangements  for  these 
purposes  from  time  to  time.  The  most  favourable  con- 
ditions occur  for  bringing  about  permanent  co-operation, 
and  co-ordinating  distinct  activities,  where  a  very  large 
area,  with  dissimilar  natural  conditions,  is  under  the  same 
political  control  ;  this  provides  the  maximum  of  stability 
and  dimin/shes  risks  and  uncertainties.  The  genius  of 
Alexander  Hamilton  ^  prevailed  to  procure  exceptional 
advantages  for  the  United  States,  by  insisting  that  the 
1  See  below,  p.  167.  *  F.  S.  Oliver,  Alexander  MamUton. 


90  THE  FUNCTIONS  OF  GOVERNMENT  [ch. 

entire  territory  should  be  treated  as  a  single  whole  for 
commercial  purposes,  and  consequently  for  economic 
development.  Similar  advantages  have  been  found,  since 
the  barriers  which  separated  the  various  German  States  into 
indejDendent  units  have  been  broken  do\vn,  and  it  has  been 
possible  to  pursue  one  policy,  consciously  and  deliberately, 
for  the  whole  Empire.  If  a  similar  clear  and  definite 
purpose  were  to  make  itself  felt  in  regard  to  the  separate 
countries  which  form  the  British  Empire,  it  could  not  fail 
to  bring  the  various  elements  into  closer  co-operation ; 
it  would  thus  tend,  not  only  to  the  successful  development 
of  each  part,  but  to  the  increased  stability  of  the  whole. 
The  matter  is  so  important  that  we  should  not  continue  to 
trust  to  chance,  but  ought  to  take  the  trouble  to  make  the 
economic  development  of  the  Empire,  in  its  separate  parts 
and  as  a  whole,  a  matter  of  serious  thought.  The  com- 
mercial intercourse  between  this  and  other  countries  is 
not  sure  to  work  out  in  the  best  possible  fashion  if  it  is 
left  entirely  in  private  hands.  No  advantage  can  arise 
from  a  determination  on  the  part  of  any  government  to 
shirk  responsibilities  which  must  be  considered  by  public 
authorities,  if  they  are  to  be  made  the  subject  of  considera- 
tion at  all. 

The  doctrine  of  allowing  perfect  free  play  to  private 
interests,  in  the  confidence  that  they  will  unconsciously 
work  for  the  good  of  the  country  as  a  whole,  is  exceedingly 
plausible.  But  during  the  course  of  last  century  this 
principle  of  laisser  faire  was  entirely  discredited,  so  far  as 
the  internal  condition  of  the  country  is  concerned.  The 
accounts  of  the  condition  of  women  and  children  in  the 
factory  districts  and  in  mines  forced  the  public  to  recognise 
that  private  interests  provided  no  safeguard  against  the 
ph3^sical  deterioration  of  the  race,  and  that  the  limitation 
of  hours  of  work,  and  the  inspection  of  places  where  work 
was  carried  on,  were  necessary  for  the  sake  of  the  health  of 
the  coming  generation.     The  insufficiency  of  the  principle 


l]    unemployment  as  a  symptom  of  disease     91 

of  leaving  free  play  for  private  interests  having  been 
established  in  one  case,  it  has  been  altogether  discredited, 
and  inroads  have  been  made  upon  it  from  every  side  and 
on  many  dillerent  pretexts  ;  but  this  is  a  new  source  of 
danger ;  there  was  something  to  be  said  for  the  rule, 
and  there  ought  to  be  careful  consideration  of  each  excep- 
tion. The  economic  life  of  the  country  cannot  be  carried 
on  steadily  and  healthily,  when  there  is  occasional  interrup- 
tion on  behalf  of  some  special  philanthropic  or  political 
object.  It  is  only  by  giving  constant  and  systematic 
attention  to  the  economic  life  of  the  country,  and  prescrib- 
ing a  regimen  by  which  humanitarian  and  political  interests 
can  be  constantly  considered,  that  we  escape  the  uncertainty 
wliich  arises  from  spasmodic  interference  and  sentimental 
or  interested  agitation.^ 

4.  The  Criteria  of  Healthy  Economic  Life 

(a)  The  sufficiency  or  insufficiency  of  employment  is  the 
test  which  shows  most  clearly  whether  the  economic  life 
of  a  country  is  in  a  healthy  condition  or  not.  The  rate 
of  profits,  the  value  of  land,  the  statistics  of  trade,  and 
all  sorts  of  other  criteria  have  been  appealed  to  by  different 
experts  in  discussing  this  subject,  and  each  of  these  may  be 
important  with  regard  to  some  particular  inquiry  ;  but  the 
condition  of  the  population  is  the  essential  thing  as  regards 
the  community  as  a  whole.  Infant  mortality,  according  to 
Malthus,"  was  the  most  instructive  symptom  to  notice  in 
order  to  decide  whether  the  population  was  redundant ; 
and  the  sufficiency  of  employment  is  the  best  test  to  apply 
in  order  to  see  whether  the  conditions  in  which  people  live 
are  favourable  to  the  development  of  character  ^  or  not. 
The  man  who  has  work  to  do  is  able  to  lead  a  disciplined 
life  ;  he  preserves  his  personal  independence  by  earning  his 
own  living,  and  he  has  a  prospect  of  improving  in  skill  or 
*  See  above,  p.  63.  *  See  above,  p.  3.  •  See  above,  p.  y. 


92  THE  FUNCTIONS  OF  GOVERNMENT  [ch. 

experience,  and  thus  of  becoming  fit  for  more  remunerative 
employment.  The  man  who,  for  any  cause,  is  unemployed 
is  in  danger  of  losingr  the  habits  of  ret;ular  Kfe,  and  of 
gradually  forfeiting  his  self-respect ;  he  passes  by  degrees 
from  the  ranks  of  the  unemployed  to  swell  the  numbers  of 
the  mere  loafers  who  are  unemployable.  In  progressive 
communities  there  is  constant  change  ;  and  in  the  course 
of  these  changes  temporary  unemployment  is  sure  to  arise  ; 
but  in  a  State  that  is  not  only  progressive  but  healthy,  the 
labourers  who  are  thrown  out  from  one  department  can, 
sooner  or  later,  be  absorbed  somewhere  else.  The  really 
serious  symptom  appears  when  unemployment  becomes 
chronic,  and  a  section  of  the  community,  whether  large  or 
small,  habitually  live  in  enforced  idleness,  and  are  either 
driven  into  crime  or  are  satisfied  to  be  maintained  as 
paupers. 

The  existence  of  a  large  population  of  pauperised 
citizens  was  one  of  the  earliest  and  most  noticeable  features 
of  the  disease  which  affected  the  economic  life  of  ancient 
Rome.  The  city  of  Rome  was  able  to  procure  supplies  of 
corn,  partly  as  tribute  from  subject  peoples  among  whom 
her  administrative  and  military  system  extended,  and 
partly  as  interest  on  the  large  amount  of  Roman  capital 
which  was  invested  in  the  provinces.  There  was  no  necessity 
to  rely  on  the  neighbouring  territory  for  supplies  of  food, 
or  to  purchase  them  in  exchange  for  the  products  of  Roman 
industry.  Agricultural  life  and  manufacturing  were  alike 
depressed  ;  but  supplies  of  food  were  forthcoming  at  Rome 
for  a  population  that  failed  to  find  employment  in  any 
productive  avocation.  The  strength  of  the  Empire  was 
such  that  this  state  of  affairs  continued  for  generations,  and 
did  not  by  any  means  prove  fatal  immediately ;  but  other 
States  ma}''  do  well  to  take  heed  of  the  warning,  and  not 
to  be  misled  by  any  outward  indications  of  wealth  and 
prosperity  into  neglecting  the  significance  of  this  dangerous 
symptom. 


1.]       DEFECTIVENESS  OF  MONEY  MEASUREMENT       93 

(6)  Such  political  objects  as  the  maintenance  of  a  healthy 
condition  at  home  and  of  a  position  of  influence  abroad  are 
of  supreme  importance.  They  have  to  be  dealt  with  on 
such  a  large  scale,  or  involve  such  far-distant  consequences, 
that  they  lie  outside  the  scope  of  individual  action  and 
beyond  the  span  of  individual  expectation.  For  this  very 
reason  they  cannot  be  estimated  and  compared  in  the 
terms  we  use  for  ordinary  transactions.  We  have  means  of 
assessing  the  benefit  or  injury  that  comes  to  individuals, 
but  we  have  no  standard  in  terms  of  which  we  can  attempt 
to  measure  any  benefit  or  mischief  that  accrues  to  the 
community  as  a  whole,  present  and  to  come.  For  all 
ordinary  purposes  money  serves,  not  only  as  a  medium 
which  facilitates  exchange,  but  as  a  standard  which 
measures  value.  The  value  thus  measured  is  value  to  the 
individual,  and  not  value  to  the  community  as  a  whole. 
Money  measurement  is  not  directly  applicable  to  goods  or 
services,  when  viewed  from  the  point  of  view  of  what  is 
beneficial  or  injurious  to  the  State  as  a  whole.  It  is  not  a 
test  we  can  trust  to,  or  regard  as  decisive,  even  though  we 
may  be  wise  not  to  discard  it  altogether. 

Current  money  is  a  standard  by  which  we  can  measure 
the  values  of  the  goods  and  services  that  circulate  in  any 
community.  The  standard  is  not,  and  cannot  be,  absolutely 
fixed  and  invariable  ;  but  the  variations  in  the  value  of 
money  are  comparatively  slow.  Its  value  is  more  stable 
and  less  subject  to  fluctuation  than  that  of  other  valuable 
things  ;  it  serves  as  a  fairly  constant  standard  for  short 
periods,  and  as  knowledge  advances,  we  are  obtaining  more 
and  more  data  with  the  help  of  which  we  can  estimate  and 
correct  the  variations  in  this  standard.^  For  practical 
purposes  this  standard  serves  sufficiently,  and  we  can  state 
the  value  of  goods,  or  services,  with  a  high  degree  of 

1  For  recent  periods  see  W.  S.  Jcvons,  'A  serious  fall  in  the  value  of 
Gold  '  in  Invpstigations  in  Currency  aiid  Finance,  p.  13.  In  regard  to  the 
distant  past,  it  is  more  conTenient  to  take  the  common  food  of  the  people 
as  the  basis  of  comparison. 


94  THE  FUNCTIONS  OF  GOVERNMENT  [ch. 

accuracy,  by  quoting  the  price  at  which  goods  may  be 
bought,  or  labour  hired.  But  value  is  not  a  fixed  quality 
inlierent  in,  or  intrinsic  to,  a  commodity,  as  coal  is  black 
and  lead  heavy  in  all  places  and  at  all  times.  The  value  of 
any  commodity  is  constantly  varying,  either  according  to 
the  quantity  available,  or  owing  to  causes  which  render  the 
public  more  or  less  eager  to  procure  it ;  its  value  is  the 
relation  of  exchange  in  which  any  commodity  stands  at 
any  given  time  and  in  any  particular  circumstances.  The 
value  of  anything  for  purposes  of  exchange  can  only  be 
determined  for  certain  by  actual  bargaining  ;  a  thing  is 
worth  what  it  will  fetch.  Those  things  which  cannot  be 
exchanged,  and  are  not  marketable  objects,  have  no 
exchange- value ;  they  caimot  be  bargained  for  or  purchased, 
and  therefore  they  have  no  price.  Such  elements  of  human 
welfare  as  health,  or  experience,  which  are  embodied  in 
each  individual  personally,  may,  of  course,  affect  the  terms 
on  which  he  is  hired,  but  since  he  cannot  divest  himself  of 
them  and  hand  them  over  to  any  one  else,  they  are  not 
themselves  the  subject  of  exchange,  and  therefore  it  is 
impossible  to  quote  the  precise  price  at  which  they  can  be 
bought  or  sold.  The  ordinary  methods  of  money  measure- 
ment are  not  directly  applicable  to  personal  qualities  of  any 
kind ;  and  hence  money  measurements  cannot  be  employed 
to  reckon  up  the  most  important  elements  in  national 
w^elfare. 

Even  in  regard  to  material  objects,  estimates  of  their 
importance  to  the  community  in  terms  of  price  are  likely  to 
be  very  misleading.  Market  price  arises  from  the  bargain- 
ing of  individual  buyers  and  sellers  with  one  another  ;  the 
limits  within  which  it  ranges  are  determined,  on  one  hand, 
by  the  utility  of  the  article  in  question  to  the  man  who  owns 
it,  and  by  its  utility  to  some  possible  purchaser  on  the  other. 
The  view  of  each  individual  is  determined  by  his  own 
circumstances,  and  his  opportunities  for  using  or  disposing 
of  the  thing  about  which  he  is  bargaining.     A  personal 


1.]       DEFECTIVENESS  OF  MONEY  MEASUREMENT       9fi 

element  lies  in  the  background  ;  and  though  the  manner  in 
which  this  affects  particular  bargains  is  so  slight  as  to  be 
inappreciable  and  entirely  negligil)le,  the  cumulative  effect 
is  of  considerable  importance.  The  life  of  the  State  is  so 
long  that  the  estimate  of  utility  to  the  community  may 
differ  considerably  from  that  of  utility  to  the  individual 
owner.  It  may  obviously  be  to  the  interest  of  the  individual 
owner  to  realise  his  possessions  rapidly,  so  as  to  have  the 
means  of  enjoyment — accumulated  wealth — in  forms  in 
which  he  can  invest  it  so  as  to  bring  in  an  income.  On  the 
other  hand,  the  interest  of  the  State  may  demand  that  the 
mineral  wealth  of  the  country  should  not  be  rapidly  ex- 
hausted. The  same  sort  of  thing  occurs  with  regard  to  the 
surface  of  the  land  ;  a  tenant  may  find  it  to  his  interest 
to  grow  crops  which  tend  to  exhaust  the  soil,  while  it  is 
the  interest  of  the  community  that  the  land  should  be 
kept  regularly  and  permanently  in  good  condition.  It  is 
possible  to  estimate  the  terms  on  which  the  goods  of  each 
individual  would  be  exchanged  if  brought  to  market,  and 
therefore  to  reckon  up  the  aggregate  of  the  wealth  of 
individuals,  but  the  sum  total  cannot  be  used  as  an  accurate 
statement  of  the  resources  of  the  community.  The  right 
mode  of  reckoning  the  wealth  owned  by  private  citizens 
and  lent  to  the  State  is  another  difficulty.  It  is  wealth  to 
the  individuals  and  a  burden  to  the  State  ;  while  the  fact 
that  the  State  bears  the  burden  is  an  instructive  indication 
of  its  vitality.  The  worth  in  money  of  their  possessions,  to 
individuals,  is  a  very  defective  account  of  national  resources 
and  their  importance  for  the  State. ^  Personal  qualities  are 
not  reckoned  at  all,  and  property  is  estimated  from  a 
different  point  of  view.  To  use  Adam  Smith's  phrase,  the 
total  of  the  exchange-value,  from  the  point  of  view  of 
individuals,  is  a  very  inadequate  way  of  representing  the 
value-in-use  to  the  State. 

'  On  the  importanie  of  the  distinction  draAvn  by  Adam  Smith  between 
projit  to  individuals  and  advantage  to  the  nation,  compare  Kicholson,  A 
Project  of  Emi>ire,  pp.  4'J,  5o,  60. 


96  THE  FUNCTIONS  OF  GOVERNMENT  [ch 

(c)  It  follows  from  this  distinction  that  we  cannot  judge 
of  what  is  beneficial  or  injurious  to  the  community  by 
simply  considering  how  any  given  course  will  affect  the 
aggregate  of  individual  wealth.  A  restriction  in  the  hours 
of  labour  is  quite  likely  to  diminish  the  aggregate  of  wealth 
produced ;  this  loss  may  possibly  be  indirectly  replaced 
through  an  increase  of  intensity  of  labour  during  the  shorter 
day ;  and  even  if  tliis  beneficial  result  does  not  occur,  and 
the  loss  is  a  permanent  loss  that  diminishes  the  aggre- 
gate wealth  of  the  country,  it  is  not  necessarily  injurious. 
The  increased  leisure  may  be  worth  paying  for,  from  the 
point  of  view  of  national  welfare  ;  and  the  cost  involved 
may  be  something  that  the  community  can  afford,  without 
crippling  its  productive  power.  But  it  is  foolhardy  in  the 
extreme  to  take  for  granted  that  this  must  be  the  case  :  the 
effect  of  any  proposed  change  on  the  aggregate  of  individual 
wealth  ought  to  be  most  carefully  taken  into  consideration 
in  coimection  with  such  a  proposal  as  an  eight  hours  day. 
By  taking  account  of  the  probable  effect  it  will  have  on  the 
aggregate  of  wealth,  we  can  estimate  at  what  cost  such  a 
change  can  be  made,  and  then  we  can  begin  to  consider 
whether  the  prospective  benefits  are  worth  securing  at  this 
cost.  There  is  an  analogy  in  the  case  of  the  city  clerk 
who  is  fond  of  gardening  ;  instead  of  buying  fruit  and 
vegetables  from  the  greengrocer,  he  arranges  to  take  a  piece 
of  garden  ground  and  works  in  it  himself.  He  may  find 
that  he  has  an  immense  amount  of  pleasant  recreation, 
the  satisfaction  of  which  cannot  be  estimated  in  terms  of 
money.  It  may  be,  however,  that  the  rent  and  the  outlay 
of  his  garden  come  to  a  good  deal  of  money,  and  that  his 
fruit  and  vegetables  prove  to  be  much  more  costly — if  more 
attractive — than  those  supplied  by  the  greengrocer.  If  he 
is  a  sensible  man,  he  will  try  to  reckon  up  what  the  loss 
upon  growing  his  own  fruit  or  vegetables  is.  He  will  then 
be  able  to  know  what  he  pays  for  the  recreation,  and  to 
decide  whether  he  ought  to  refrain  from  other  forms  of 


I.]  NEGLECTING  MONEY  MEASUREMENT  97 

expenditure — for  example,  on  his  wife's  dress — and  spend 
so  much  out  of  his  hniited  income  for  this  particular 
recreation.  Very  likely  he  may  decide  that  he  ought,  but 
he  should  think  the  matter  out  and  not  make  the  decision 
in  the  dark.  Questions  of  wise  or  unwise  national  economy 
are  very  similar  to  those  of  wise  or  unwise  household 
economy  ;  we  cannot  have  luxuries  of  any  kind  unless  they 
are  paid  for,  and  we  ought  to  know  how  much  is  paid 
and  who  pays  it. 

This  last  point  needs  very  careful  examination  if  we 
are  to  reach  a  sound  conclusion.  At  first  sight  it  appears 
that  if  the  aggregate  of  wealth  is  diminished,  that  merely 
means  that  the  wealthy  paj^ — and  that  the  poor  enjoy  more 
leisure — a  rearrangement  which  makes  for  equality,  even  if 
it  is  not  obviously  fair.  But  it  is  a  mistake  to  suppose 
that  wealth  remains  fixed  in  any  hands  :  it  is  continually 
being  expended  on  one  object  or  another,  and  is  thus  put 
into  circulation  :  in  one  form  or  other  it  brings  about  the 
employment  of  labour.  Some  men  use  their  money  as 
capital  and  employ  labour  ;  others  spend  it  as  income,  and 
replace  the  capital  of  those  who  manufacture  the  things 
they  buy.  In  one  way  or  another,  it  is  used  directly  or 
indirectly  for  the  employment  of  labour  ;  some  forms  of 
expenditure  occasion  the  employment  of  a  larger  and  some 
of  a  smaller  number  of  hands,  according  to  the  proportions 
in  which  capital  enters  into  different  forms  of  economic 
activity.  But  any  decrease  of  the  aggregate  of  wealth  is 
almost  certain  to  diminish  the  volume  of  wealth  in  circula- 
tion, and  both  to  change  the  character  and  reduce  the 
amount  of  the  demand  for  employment.  This  is  a  national 
evil  which  it  is  desirable  to  avoid  at  any  sacrifice. 

There  are  other  public  purposes  with  reference  to  which 
it  is  most  important  to  take  account  of  the  aggregate  of 
individual  ^\•ealt]l.  In  order  that  the  government  of  the 
country  may  be  carried  on,  there  nmst  be  an  available 
revenue,  and  this  is  obtained,  in  some  form  or  other,  from 

o 


98  THE  FUNCTIONS  OF  GOVERNMENT  [ch. 

the  pockets  of  the  people.  There  are  an  infinite  variety  of 
objects — and  desirable  objects— on  which  the  State  may 
spend  money,  and  there  is  a  tendency  for  this  expenditure 
to  increase  by  leaps  and  bounds  ;  but  it  can  only  be  carried 
on  by  reducing  the  available  wealth  in  the  possession  of 
private  persons.  Much  of  the  expenditure  of  private 
persons  is  devoted  to  the  production  of  forms  of  material 
wealth,  which,  in  the  process  of  being  used,  contribute  to 
the  production  of  new  forms  of  material  wealth  in  the  future. 
The  expenditure  of  the  government  does  not,  for  the  most 
part,  take  the  form  of  providing  means  for  the  future 
production  of  material  wealth,  and  may,  on  the  whole,  be 
classified  as  unproductive.  In  so  far  as  an  increase  of 
unproductive  expenditure  by  the  State  reduces  the  pro- 
ductive expenditure  of  private  persons,  it  tends  to  decrease 
the  prospective  facilities  for  employment,  and  thus  to 
bring  about  serious  mischief.  However  desirable  some 
form  of  public  expenditure  may  be  in  itself,  there  is  hardly 
any  that  is  so  essential  to  the  welfare  of  the  community 
as  to  make  it  wise  to  run  a  risk  of  diminishing  the  field 
of  employment. 


ILJ      DOUBLE  CHAlIAt'lEK  Ul'  SOCIAL  PKOBLEMS      99 


CHAPTER  II 

THE  REWARD  OF   SERVICES 

1.  The  Framework  of  Society  and  the  Force  of  Competition 

(a)  For  the  maintenance  and  progress  of  the  economic  life 
of  any  community  three  physical  factors  are  requisite — 
labour,  capital,  and  land.  The  precise  status  and  method 
of  managing  each  differ  enormously  at  different  times,  and 
according  to  different  conditions  of  race  and  environment — 
labour  may  be  supplied  by  slaves  or  by  free  men ;  capital 
may  be  a  personal  possession  or  the  joint-stock  of  many 
men  ;  land  may  be  assigned  to  individuals,  or  retained 
under  the  direct  management  of  the  State.  But  in  any 
case,  labour,  capital,  and  land  are  all  necessary  for  the 
economic  life  of  organised  society.  It  is  obvious  that  labour 
and  land  are  requisite  in  all  times  and  places,  and  though  in 
primitive  societies  capital  only  exists  in  very  rudimentaiy 
forms,  it  is  also  essential  in  any  community  which  is 
organised  on  a  large  scale,  and  where  the  people  are 
habituated  to  buying  requisites  and  selling  surplus  com- 
modities in  the  markets  of  the  world.  The  interplay  of 
these  physical  factors  in  material  prosperity  has  most 
frequently  given  rise  to  the  problems  of  social  life.  These 
problems  are,  however,  more  complex  than  if  they  were 
merely  concerned  with  the  accumulation  and  division  of 
external  goods.  Thoy  have  a  human  side  as  well — and  this 
is  by  far  the  more  important  aspect,  as  it  is  the  end  which 
must  be  kept  in  sight.  The  mutual  relations  of  human 
beings  to  one  another  are  being  constantly  readjusted, 


100  THE  REWARD  OF  SERVICES  [cH. 

and  there  are,  under  diverse  conditions,  different  oppor- 
tunities for  a  man  to  develop  his  personahty  and  to  im- 
prove in  intelHgence  and  character.  The  social  problem  is 
always  with  us ;  it  presents  itself  in  a  new  form  in  every 
age  and  country ;  it  has  always  a  double  aspect,  since  it 
involves  both  the  increase  of  material  prosperity  and  the 
improvement  of  personal  character.  The  latter  is  by  far 
the  more  important,  as  it  is  the  end  in  view  ;  but  the 
former  demands  careful  consideration,  as  it  supplies  the 
means  for  attaining  this  end. 

(6)  ITie  precise  nature  of  the  service  which  each  of  these 
factors  renders  to  society^  is  set  in  a  clear  light,  if  we  con- 
trast the  economic  life  of  a  primitive  with  that  of  a  highly 
organised  society.  Such  a  contrast  is  easily  drawn,  in  a 
case  where  there  is  no  difference  of  race  to  be  taken  into 
account.  We  have,  for  instance,  very  full  data  which 
enable  us  to  compare  the  condition  of  Cambridgeshire 
villages  in  the  time  of  Edward  i.  and  at  the  present  day. 
In  many  of  them  the  population  was  as  large,  six  centuries 
acTo,  as  it  is  to-day,  but  there  were  great  differences  in  their 
habits  of  life.  At  tue  earlier  date  each  family  carried  on 
agriculture  mainly  for  the  supply  of  its  own  needs  and  not 
for  sending  to  market,  and  the  agriculture  was  organised 
partly  on  individualist  and  partly  on  what  may  be  called 
collectivist  lines.  The  necessary  clothes  and  implements 
were,  to  a  large  extent,  of  home  manufacture,  and  buying 
and  selling  only  occurred  occasionally,  in  order  to  dispose  of 
a  special  surplus  or  to  meet  some  exceptional  requirement. 
At  the  present  time  the  population  are  almost  entirely 
employed  in  raising  produce  to  be  sold.  It  has  become 
habitual  to  frequent  the  Cambridge  market  and  to  purchase 
goods  at  shops.  It  is  almost  impossible  to  gauge  the 
precise  change  which  has  taken  place  in  the  standard  of 
comfort  between  those  dates,  but  it  is  possible  to  form  a 

1  This  mode  of  treatmeut  is  more  accurate  thau  that  which  represents 
Capital  as  rendering  service  to  Labour. 


11.]  SERVICES  OF  CAPITALISTS  ini 

rougli  guesH  in  regard  to  certain  important  eKnients.  The 
house  accommodation  in  the  thirteenth  century  was  verj' 
much  worse  than  that  at  the  beginning  of  the  nineteentli, 
defective  as  we  now  regard  the  provision  which  was  made 
for  the  housing  of  the  rural  population  a  century  ago.  The 
occasional  inventories  which  have  come  down  make  it  clear 
that,  so  far  as  furniture  and  household  utensils  are  con- 
cerned, the  cottager  of  the  thirteenth  century  was  infinitely 
worse  off ;  he  may  have  had  some  advantage  in  the 
quantities  of  bread  and  beer  which  were  available  for  his 
consumption,  and  we  have  no  means  of  comparing  the 
quality  of  these  necessaries  ;  but  the  villager  in  the  present 
day  has  access  to  a  much  greater  variety  of  supplies  both 
for  clothing  and  for  food — including  tea,  tobacco,  sugar,  and 
fruit — than  w'as  possible  in  bygone  times.  To  institute  any 
comparison  in  personal  qualities  is  more  difficult ;  but  at 
all  events  the  villager  of  the  present  day  has  a  much  fuller 
life,  since  he  has  greater  opportunity  for  freedom  of  move- 
ment, and  for  acquiring  information  about  the  events  of  the 
great  world  than  was  possible  when  railways  and  printed 
newspapers  were  unknown.  There  are  no  data  for  a 
comparison  of  the  standard  of  moral  character,  but  the 
records  of  crimes  adjudicated  upon  in  the  King's  courts,  and 
of  punishments  inflicted  in  the  Manorial  courts,  leave  the 
impression  that  in  this  respect  there  has  been  no  deteriora- 
tion. Moreover,  from  what  we  know  of  the  death  rate,  it 
is  impossible  to  believe  that  the  population  really  enjoyed 
a  high  standard  of  bodily  comfort.  The  villager  of  the 
present  day  appears  to  be  as  well  off  in  almost  every  respect, 
and  much  better  ofif  in  some  of  the  principal  conditions  of 
bodily  comfort ;  while,  in  the  opportunities  for  having  a 
share  in  the  thought  and  interest  of  the  world  at  large,  the 
man  of  the  present  day  is  infinitely  better  off  ;  but  the 
difference  becomes  more  striking  when  we  look  at  England 
as  a  whole.  In  the  thirteenth  century  the  nation  consisted 
of  thousands  of  separate  villages  of  a  similar  type  ;    town 


102  THE  REWARD  OF  SERVICES  [. 

life  was  in  its  infancy,  and  the  trade  of  the  country  w 
chiefly  carried  on  by  foreign  merchants  in  foreign  ships. 
Though  some  of  the  Cambridgeshire  villages  have  slightly 
declined  in  population  during  these  seven  centuries,  Eng- 
land as  a  vehole  has  increased  enormously  in  numbers,  and 
therefore  in  the  power  of  bringing  organised  labour  to  bear 
on  the  production  of  goods.  So  far  as  facilities  for  defence 
are  concerned,  the  Navy,  which  sailed  under  Nelson's  flag 
to  Trafalgar,  was  far  better  equipped  than  that  which 
Edward  ni.  commanded  when  he  won  the  battle  of  Sluys. 
The  enormous  increase  in  the  wealth  and  power  of  the 
country  gives  the  best  indication  of  the  nature  of  the 
services  which  have  been  rendered  to  the  community  by 
the  intelligent  administration  of  land  and  of  capital. 

Land  may  be  used  for  many  different  purposes  ;  in  the 
thirteenth  century  much  of  it  was  waste,  and  what  was 
employed  in  tillage  was  entirely  unimproved.  In  the 
progress  that  has  taken  place  since  that  time,  landowners 
have  had  an  important  part  to  play  ;  they  and  their  agents 
have  endeavoured  to  regulate  the  use  of  land,  so  that  it  shall 
not  be  exhausted  in  the  process  of  cultivation  ;  and  since 
the  beginning  of  the  eighteenth  century  they  have,  as  a 
body,  devoted  themselves  to  the  permanent  improvement 
of  the  land  for  agricultural  purposes.  Suitable  buildings 
have  been  erected,  roads  have  been  laid  down  to  convey  the 
produce  to  market,  and  fields  have  been  fenced  and  drained, 
80  that  the  productiveness  of  the  country  has  been  enor- 
mously increased.  ^  \Vhere  the  land  is  used  more  intensively , 
there  has  been  a  still  greater  expenditure  in  fitting  it  to 
serve  another  social  purpose.  The  laying  out  of  an  estate 
for  building  purposes,  with  the  necessary  roads  £Ciid 
sewering,  is  a  very  costly  affair  ;  and  many  landlords  may 
have  difficulty  in  finding  the  means  for  undertaking  work 
of  the  sort ;  but  it  has  been  done  on  a  large  scale,  and 
provision  has  been  made  for  the  housing  of  an  enormously 
1  See  above,  p,  Q, 


II.]  SERVICES  OF  CAPITALISTS  103 

increased  community.  The  work  that  has  been  done  in 
developing  the  mineral  resources  of  the  country,  and 
rendering  them  available  to  meet  the  requirements  of  the 
community,  is  another  important  service  which  has  been 
rendered  by  landowners.  In  retrospect  we  may  say,  that 
the  function  of  the  landowner  in  the  economy  of  the  State 
has  been  that  of  making  permanent  improvements  in  the 
land  of  the  country  and  adapting  it  to  the  new  uses  which 
came  to  be  required  through  the  progress  of  society. 

The  owners  of  capital  have  also  contributed  their  share 
to  the  progress  of  society.  It  is  through  their  intervention 
that  goods  can  be  brought  to  market,  and  distributed 
to  the  parts  of  the  country  where  they  are  most  required. 
In  Elizabethan  times  it  was  extraordinarily  difficult  to 
render  the  corn  grown  in  the  coimtry  available,  so  that  the 
requirements  of  every  part  of  the  countiy  should  be  met  in 
the  best  way.  Much  pains  was  taken  to  effect  this  result; 
and  the  development  of  the  internal  corn  trade  has  at 
last  solved  the  problem,  and  private  individuals  can  be 
trusted  to  perform  this  service  without  being  subjected  to 
constant  supervision.  The  marketing  of  the  manufactures 
of  the  country,  and  the  arrangements  for  exporting  them, 
have  also  been  organised  by  the  owners  of  capital,  and  they 
have  provided  the  mercantile  marine  which  has  grown  to 
such  enormous  dimensions,  and  on  which  the  very  existence 
of  the  community  is  now  dependent. 

The  owners  of  capital  have  also  rendered  a  service  to 
society  by  providing  equipment  to  enable  the  labourer  to  do 
his  work  faster  and  better.  This  side  of  capitalist  activity 
has  been  especially  conspicuous  during  the  last  century  and 
a  half  ;  the  inventions  of  James  Watt,  of  Arkwright,  and 
of  Stephenson  have  been  introduced  so  as  to  revolutionise 
industrial  processes  of  every  kind,  and  to  render  it  possible 
to  obtain  an  infinitely  increased  result  with  a  very  small 
amount  of  drudgery.  In  general  terms,  the  task  of  the 
capitalist  has  been  that  of  organising  and  directing  and 


104  THE  REWARD  OF  SERVICES  [ch. 

supervising  the  labour  of  the  country,  so  that  it  shall 
meet  the  needs  of  the  community  to  the  fullest  possible 
extent. 

Tliese  services  have  been  rendered  by  private  individuals 
in  the  past ;  it  is  quite  arguable  that  they  might  have  been 
equally  well  supplied  by  the  agents  and  factors  of  the  State, 
and  that  if  they  had  been  performed  in  this  way,  they 
would  have  been  carried  out  at  less  expense.  To  that 
question  we  may  return,^  but  at  the  moment  it  is  important 
to  note  what  the  services  rendered  to  the  community  by 
the  owner  of  capital  and  the  owner  of  land  have  been  ; 
they  are  necessary  services  which  are  essential  to  the 
existence  of  organised  society,  and  whatever  reconstruction 
of  society  may  go  on,  the  present  degree  of  prosperity 
cannot  be  maintained  if  these  functions  are  not  as  well 
discharged  in  the  future  as  they  have  been  in  the  past. 

(c)  Another  great  contrast  between  the  village  life  in 
the  present  day  and  in  the  thirteenth  century  lies  in  the 
fact  that  the  economic  relations  of  the  inhabitants  are  no 
longer  regulated  by  custom  but  are  settled  by  competition. 
Tlie  thirteenth-century  labourer  paid  customary  services  to 
his  lord,  which  may  be  regarded  as  corresponding  to  a  rent 
for  the  use  of  the  land  he  occupied  and  from  which  he 
procured  the  means  of  subsistence.  In  so  far  as  definite 
services  were  commuted  for  payments  in  money,  they  also 
had  a  customary  character.  The  great  defect  of  this 
system  lay  in  the  fact  that  there  was  so  little  room  for 
distinguishing  between  good  work  and  bad,  and  that  the 
amount  could  not  be  adjusted  with  any  precision  to  the 
work  done  by  the  labourer.  In  those  cases  where  custom- 
ary prices  are  still  maintained  this  defect  is  noticeable  ; 
the  cabman  who  drives  one  mile  and  1750  yards  in 
London  is  underpaid  with  a  shilling,  if  the  man  who  drives 
11  yards  farther  has  really  earned  eighteenpence.  The 
introduction  of  money  payments,  and  of  competition,  has 
1  See  below,  pp.  150  f. 


n.]  THE  REGULATION  OF  COMPETITION  105 

made  it  possible  to  adjust  wages  with  much  greater 
precision  than  before,  and  to  secure  that  tlie  man  shall  bo 
paid  more  exactly  in  accordance  with  the  worth  of  the  work 
done.  There  are,  however,  defects  in  the  method  of 
settling  wages  by  competition  which  must  not  be  over- 
looked. In  many  cases  of  bargaining,  one  side  is  likely  to 
be  in  a  stronger  position  than  the  other,  through  being  less 
anxious  to  conclude  the  bargain  in  a  hurry.  ^  On  the  whole, 
the  employing  class  have  been  in  this  position  with  regard 
to  labour  ;  but  there  have  been  exceptional  cases  where  the 
labourer  has  been  in  much  the  stronger  position.  A  striking 
case  in  point  was  furnished  at  the  time  of  the  Black  Death, 
when,  owing  to  the  effects  of  the  pestilence,  labourers  were 
unusually  scarce,  and  were  able  to  take  advantage  of  their 
position  to  demand  what  were  regarded  as  exorbitant  rates, 
under  the  threat  of  refusing  to  carry  on  the  cultivation  of 
the  country  and  other  necessary  avocations  at  all.  On 
more  than  one  occasion  it  has  been  deemed  necessary  for 
the  State  to  step  in  and  use  its  influence  on  behalf  of 
the  side  which  was  economically  weak.  The  Statute  of 
Labourers  was  one  example  of  such  intervention,  and  the 
whole  history  of  nineteenth-century  legislation  in  regard  to 
the  work  of  women  and  children  in  factories  is  an  example 
of  intervention  on  behalf  of  the  employed. 

Another  evil  arises  in  connection  with  competition  ; 
there  is  a  danger  that  advantage  will  be  taken  of  the 
opportunities  which  the  modern  organisation  of  society 
offers,  for  adulteration,  and  for  supplying  goods  of  an 
inferior   quality.      Frequently   the   purchaser,   w^ho   buys 

1  Tt  is  commonly  said  that  in  every  exchange  each  party  to  the  exchange 
gains,  iinil  this  is  true  ;  no  one  need  conclude  a  bargain  uuless  he  thinks  that  it 
is  to  his  advantage  to  do  so,  and  that  the  Thing  which  he  obtains  in  exchange  is 
more  useful  to  him  than  tlie  tiling  he  gives  in  exchancje  ;  but  the  man  who  is 
least  anxious  to  get  what  the  other  has  to  offer,  can  drive  the  harder  bargain, 
and  force  the  more  eager  bargainer  to  take  wliat  is  of  very  little  more  use  to 
him  than  the  thing  he  has  to  give.  Generally  speaking,  the  more  wealthy 
man  is  better  able  to  wait,  and  lias  more  opportunity  of  looking  elsewhere  for 
what  he  wants,  than  the  poor  man  :  and  therefore  the  wealthy  man  may  often 
be  iu  the  positiou  of  being  able  to  drive  x  hard  bargain  with  the  poor  man. 


106  THE  REWARD  OF  SERVICES  [ch. 

things  he  wants  to  use,  is  not  a  very  good  judge  of  the 
quality  of  the  article  he  is  buying  ;  he  is  apt  to  look  chiefly 
at  the  price,  and  to  give  a  decided  preference  to  what  is 
low-priced,  in  the  hope  that  it  may  turn  out  on  trial  to  be 
good  in  quality  and  therefore  cheap.  When  the  craftsman 
and  the  purchaser  were  neighbours,  the  purchaser  had  no 
doubt  where  the  responsibility  lay  if  the  goods  turned  out 
to  be  bad,  and  this  afforded  a  certain  safeguard  ;  if  the 
wares  proved  to  be  '  slightly  wrought,'  or  not '  substantial,' 
he  could  make  a  definite  complaint,  and  possibly  obtain 
redress  through  the  craft-guild  organisation.  But  this  local 
safeguard  is  removed  when  the  merchant  intervenes ; 
when  goods  are  sold  in  distant  markets,  the  customer  has 
no  real  means  of  making  an  effective  complaint  against  the 
manufacturer.  The  merchant  may  be  an  expert  buyer, 
but  if  he  finds  that  there  is  a  ready  sale  for  inferior  goods  of 
cheap  quality,  he  may  think  he  can  do  the  best  business  and 
undersell  rival  traders  by  continuing  to  supply  them.  In 
the  Middle  Ages,  the  more  favourable  conditions  of  direct 
dealing  did  not  suffice  to  maintain  the  quality  of  goods  ;  an 
elaborate  system  of  mutual,  supervision  was  organised  in 
every  town  by  means  of  craft-guilds,  which  were  empowered 
to  act  in  the  interest  of  the  public  under  municipal  author- 
ity. Careful  arrangements  were  also  made  with  regard  to 
the  export  trade,  with  the  view  of  building  up  a  high 
reputation  for  English  goods  in  foreign  markets.  In 
modern  times  it  has  been  still  more  necessary  to  take 
precautions  against  adulteration,  and  for  giving  security 
to  the  buyer  as  to  the  quality  of  goods  ;  but  there  is  always 
a  danger  that  this  evil  may  break  out  when  competition  is 
entirely  uru-egulated.  In  some  cases  it  may  prove  so  in- 
jurious as  to  bring  about  the  entire  destruction  of  a  branch 
of  trade. 

(d)  The  evils  of  the  driving  of  hard  bargains  and  of  the 
sale  of  inferior  goods  are  so  serious,  that  there  can  be  no 
doubt  as  to  the  necessity  for  regulating  competition  so  as  to 


n.]  THE  ELIMINATION  OF  COMPETITION  107 

protect  the  weak,  and  to  maintain  a  high  quaHty  of  produc- 
tion. A  great  deal  has  been  done  in  this  duection  ;  as  this 
has  been  introduced  as  the  results  of  experience,  it  has  on 
the  whole  been  wisely  done.  Unwise  regulation  hampers 
industry  and  commerce  unnecessarily  ;  but  so  long  as 
regulation  is  wise,  and  puts  down  admitted  evils  at  small 
expense,  it  should  be  welcomed.  The  extreme  advocates 
of  laisser  faire,  who  hold  that  individuals  should  be  taught 
to  look  out  for  themselves  in  all  the  incidents  of  economic 
life,  seem  to  be  almost  extinct ;  but  there  are  many  people 
who  regard  regulation  as  an  inadequate  remedy.  They 
hold  that  the  evils  are  so  deeply  rooted  in  the  system  of 
competition,  that  Ave  can  only  hope  to  get  rid  of  them  by 
abolishing  competition  altogether,  and  establishing  some 
system  of  regulation  by  which  the  need  for  bargaining  will 
be  done  away. 

There  is  some  reason  to  doubt,  however,  whether  this 
would  be  practicable  at  all.  The  doing  away  with  competi- 
tion altogether,  implies  the  abolition  of  bargaining  both 
for  goods  and  services.  In  a  society  where  there  is  no 
bargaining  there  can  be  no  price,  and  no  method  of  deter- 
mining the  exchange-value  of  any  commodity.  If  this 
method  of  determining  values  is  abandoned,  it  is  hard  to  see 
by  what  method  the  relative  value  of  different  services  to 
the  community  could  be  assessed.  Even  if  this  difficulty 
were  overcome,  and  there  were  no  change  in  the  processes 
of  production,  or  in  the  trading  relations  with  other  countries, 
the  original  assessment  of  values  might  continue  to  be 
satisfactory  :  but  if  there  were  changes  of  any  sort,  some 
readjustment  would  be  desirable,  and  there  would  be  great 
difficulty  in  carrying  out  readjustments  which  would  be 
regarded  as  acceptable  by  all  the  parties  concerned.  It 
is  very  difficult  to  conceive  a  social  system  in  which 
bargaining  should  be  altogether  abolished  while  there  was 
yet  freedom  for  change.  The  complete  elimination  of 
competition,  and  the  carrying  on  all  business  affairs  as  a 


108  THE  REWARD  OF  SERVICES  fcH. 

complex  system  of  State  monopoly,  would  be  beset  with 
extraordinary  difficulties.  Many  of  the  advantages  which 
would  accrue  from  the  reduction  ot  the  evils  of  competition 
are  being  secured  through  the  efforts,  constantly  made  by 
private  persons,  to  reduce  the  waste  arising  from  competi- 
tion, and  to  introduce  more  complete  and  more  extensive 
organisation.  This  change  is  continually  going  on  ;  many 
savings  may  be  effected  when  a  business  is  conducted  on  a 
large  scale  ;  and  there  is,  in  consequence,  a  steady  tendency 
for  firms,  both  commercial  and  industrial,  to  combine  so  as 
to  eliminate  the  loss  and  waste  which  may  arise  in  the 
course  of  competition.  It  is  commonly  said  that  competi- 
tion inevitably  leads  to  monopoly.^  This  word  has  ugly 
associations,  but  it  does  not  necessarily  follow  that  the 
monopolist  will  use  his  exclusive  powers  to  extort  money 
from  the  public,  by  serving  them  badly.  In  nine  times  out 
of  ten  he  will  obtain  the  largest  return  by  setting  himself 
to  serve  them  as  well  as  he  can  ;  there  is  no  certainty  that 
the  State  might  not  work  its  monopoly  with  the  view  of 
obtaining  as  much  gaui  as  possible,  and  not  with  the 
view  of  serving  the  public  well.  If  a  private  monopolist 
neglects  the  welfare  of  the  public  altogether,  citizens  may 
be  able  to  attain  some  redress  by  appealmg  to  the  law  of 
the  land,  or  to  administrative  authorities  ;  there  is,  besides, 
always  a  chance  that  a  practical  monopoly  in  private  hands 
may  be  broken  down  by  some  energetic  rival.  On  the 
other  hand,  when  business  is  once  organised  as  a  department 
of  municipal  or  public  life,  it  is  impossible  for  private 
persons  to  compete  ;  and  the  authorities  may  find  it 
difficult  to  relinquish  the  undertaking.  Government  de- 
partments are  to  a  considerable  extent  irresponsible  ;  it  is 
very  difficult  to  convict  them  of  a  mistake,  or  to  get  redress 
for  any  carelessness.  A  monopoly  in  private  hands  can  be 
regulated  in  many  ways  by  such  an  authority  as  the  Board 
of  Trade  ;  it  can  be  sued  in  the  ordinary  courts,  and  it  can 
1  See  below,  p.  134. 


ii.J     CLASS  DISTINCTIONS  IN  PERSONAL  SERVICE    109 

at  least  be  effectively  criticised.  The  State  management 
of  railways  may  be  the  best  system  in  some  countries,  but 
there  is  no  reason  to  suppose  that  it  would  be  preferable  to 
that  of  a  c '  iipany  under  all  circumstances.  It  would  be  a 
doubtful  experiment  to  introduce  this  sj'stem  for  many 
kinds  of  business,  and  to  extinguish  private  trading 
altogether,  before  the  complete  superiority  of  State 
management  is  proved. 

2.  The  Reward  of  Lnbour 

(o)  There  is  a  great  contrast  between  the  thirteentli- 
century  and  twentieth-century  England  in  regard  to  the 
grouping  of  the  people  into  an  organised  society.  Seven 
centuries  ago  there  were  marked  divisions  of  status  between 
different  landowners,  according  to  the  tenure  by  which 
they  held,  and  according  to  their  condition  as  freemen  or 
as  villeins  ;  and  the  inhabitants  of  each  town  were  divided 
up  according  to  their  occupations.  The  lines  of  cleavage 
between  these  various  groups  were  so  deeply  marked  that 
the  mere  accumulation  of  wealth  did  not  serve  to  obliterate 
them  ;  one  villein  might  have  become  a  rich  man,  and 
another  rendered  poor,  but  they  occupied  the  same  social 
status,  with  its  rights  and  its  disabilities.  Though  there 
was  no  such  hard  and  fast  caste  system  as  there  is  in  India 
in  the  present  day,  changes  of  status  were  made  with 
difficulty,  and  occupations  tended  to  be  hereditary. 
Economic  progress  has  done  much  to  reduce  the  importance 
of  these  barriers,  and  a  new  method  of  division,  into  classes, 
has  come  into  being.  There  are  broad  lines  of  division 
between  the  professional  classes,  who  undergo  a  long  and 
expensive  education,  the  skilled  artisan,  who  has  also 
required  some  years  of  training,  and  the  labourer  who  may 
be  active  and  hardworking,  but  has  no  specialised  skill  of 
any  kind.  These  class  divisions  are  marked  by  economic 
differences ;    the  class  that  can  afford  to  undergo  a  long 


110  THE  REWARD  OF  SERVICES  [ch. 

training  for  the  business  of  life  is  not  affected  by  the 
competition  of  those  who  have  not  had  such  training  :  each 
class  has  its  own  standard  of  life  ;  the  members  of  each 
class  endeavour  to  secure  such  a  rate  of  reward  as  will 
enable  them  to  maintain  that  standard,  and  this  determines 
the  great  differences  in  the  ordinary  rate  of  reward,  as 
between  the  professional  and  the  working  classes.  The 
man  who  enters  on  a  profession  expects  to  be  able  to  earn 
three  or  four  hundred  a  year,  while  the  artisan  can  look 
forward  to  about  a  quarter  of  that  rate.  The  professions 
may  be  overcrowded ;  this  does  not  mean,  however,  that  the 
rate  of  reward  is  brought  down,  but  that  many  individuals 
have  to  drop  out  of  the  competition,  and  try  to  obtain  a 
living  outside  the  ranks  of  their  own  calling.  The  standard 
of  comfort  among  the  skilled  artisans  is  maintained  lq  a 
somewhat  similar  fashion  ;  while  the  ranks  of  the  lowest 
class  are  swelled  by  the  broken  men  who  have,  from  various 
reasons,  proved  failures  in  their  own  class. 

In  commercial  circles  there  are  enormous  differences  in 
the  remuneration  earned ;  the  men  who  do  routine  work 
are  very  poorly  paid,  while  those  who  hold  positions  of  trust 
and  responsibility  are  paid  at  very  high  rates.  In  this 
case,  however,  there  may  be  very  little  difference  in  the 
amount  of  training  required  ;  or  at  best,  training  may  serve 
to  give  a  man  a  better  start,  but  it  does  not  do  much  to 
enable  him  to  keep  up  in  the  race.  The  various  personal 
qualities  which  go  to  make  up  business  capacity — such  as 
sound  and  rapid  judgment  and  persistence — all  tell ;  and 
the  man  who,  even  in  a  small  sphere,  shows  such  qualities 
may  rise  to  very  high  positions  indeed.  A  man  may  best 
prove  his  fitness  for  such  positions  by  the  experience  he 
has  acquired  and  the  capacity  he  has  shown  in  actual  life, 
and  not  by  the  completeness  of  his  preliminary  training. 
Hence,  in  regard  to  business  positions,  there  is  much  more 
competition  of  individual  with  individual,  and  much  more 
prospect  of  rising  from  a  position  which  is  comparable  to 


II.]     CLASS  DISTINCTIONS  IN  PERSONAL  SERVICE    111 

that  of  an  artisan,  to  one  which  commands  a  much  higher 
income  than  any  but  the  exceptional  professional  men  can 
hope  to  secure. 

The  main  point  can  perhaps  be  brought  out  by  the  use  of 
a  metaphor,  which  affords  a  convenient  means  of  illustra- 
tion. We  may  think  of  a  man's  skill  and  experience  as  a 
kind  of  *  personal  capital '  fixed  in  his  own  individual  life. 
The  broad  differences  in  the  rate  of  the  reward  which  he 
can  earn,  by  turning  his  faculties  into  play  in  one  calling 
or  another,  are  due  to  the  differences  of  personal  capital — 
whether  acquired  by  training  or  experience — which  he  has 
at  his  disposal  ;  effective  competition  for  opportunities  of 
employment,  and  for  greater  or  less  reward,  is  carried  on 
between  individuals  who  are  equipped  with  similar  personal 
capital.  In  avocations,  which  involve  similar  amounts  of 
personal  capital,  the  rate  of  pay  Avill  differ  according  to  the 
probabilities  of  regular  employment,  or  to  the  agreeable 
nature  of  the  employment ;  callings,  which  are  attractive 
on  these  grounds,  are  likely  to  be  remunerated  at  a  lower 
rate,  while  a  high  rate  of  reward  may  be  needed  to  induce 
men  to  engage  in  work  which  is  irregular  or  dangerous. 
The  competition  of  individual  with  individual  is  probably  a 
satisfactory  method  of  settling  these  differences  in  a  manner 
which  is  at  once  precise  and  fair.  The  assignment  of 
callings  to  individuals  would  be  a  very  difficult  duty  in  an 
organised  society,  where  there  were  neither  hereditary 
preferences  nor  opportunities  for  the  exercise  of  personal 
choice.  The  extreme  differences,  between  the  man  who 
draws  a  large  salary  with  very  little  drudgery  and  the  man 
who  works  hard  for  long  hours  for  a  bare  living,  are  due  to 
the  different  amounts  of  personal  capital  available  in  each 
case,  and  are  closely  comiccted  with  the  relative  import- 
ance, for  the  life  of  the  community,  of  various  forms  of 
personal  capital. 

(6)  Class  distinctions  are  not  ar1)itrary.  In  a  society 
•where  the  economic  life  is  determined  by  the  hope  of  reward, 


118  THE  REWARD  OF  SERVICES  [ch. 

they  open  out  a  range  of  ambitions  which  afford  a  stimulus 
that  would  not  other-wise  exist  for  a  man  to  work  energetic- 
ally in  his  calling.  In  order  that  this  stimulus  may  operate 
effectively,  it  is  desirable  that  there  should  be  facilities  for 
rising  in  the  world  and  for  passing  from  one  class  to  another. 
In  the  Middle  Ages,  there  was  an  opportunity  for  ecclesi- 
astics to  rise  to  the  highest  political  positions,  either  in 
what  we  should  call  the  Civil  or  the  Diplomatic  Service; 
but  in  other  respects  there  was  little  opportunity  of  change, 
and  few  opportunities  of  rising  in  the  world.  In  modern 
times,  the  best  men  have  opportunities  of  coming  to  the 
front  in  business,  though,  owing  to  the  immense  scale  on 
which  business  is  now  organised,  it  is  probable  that  many 
men  of  real  ability  never  have  any  opportunity  of  showing 
what  they  have  in  them,  or -.of  having  their  capacity 
recognised  and  appreciated.  The  educational  ladder  is  so 
far  complete  as  to  give  clever  boys,  from  any  class,  the 
means  of  entering  the  ranks  of  the  professions,  if  they  are 
not  only  clever,  but  persevering,  and  have  some  faculty  of 
adapting  themselves  to  new  social  conditions.  On  the 
other  hand,  the  changes  which  took  place  in  England  during 
the  nineteenth  century  broke  away  the  steps  by  which 
agricultural  labourers  had  been  able  to  rise  in  the  world. 
So  long  as  corn-growing  was  the  most  remunerative  branch 
of  farming,  the  system  of  small  holdings  was  unable  to 
hold  its  own  economical^  in  competition  with  farming  on 
a  large  scale,  and  it  died  out.  Even  if  it  was  inconsistent 
with  the  introduction  of  the  best  methods  of  cultivation,  it 
had  an  encouraging  influence  on  the  best  elements  in  rural 
life,  as  the  energetic  labourer  had  within  his  reach  the  oppor- 
tunity of  being  able  to  work  on  his  OAvn  account ;  and,  if  he 
was  successful  on  a  small  scale,  to  obtain  a  larger  holding 
and  become  a  substantial  man.  The  consolidation  of  small 
farms,  which  went  on  jMri  passu  with  the  progress  of  en- 
closure in  the  eighteenth  and  nineteenth  centuries,  has  cut 
away  the  steps  in  the  ladder.    For  most  agricultural  labourers 


11.]  LADDERS  FOR  RISING  IN  THE  WORLD  113 

there  is  no  opportunity  of  rising  in  the  world,  by  practising 
the  calhng  in  which  they  have  been  trained.  The  provision 
of  increased  numbers  of  small  holders  may  not  result  in  the 
creation  of  a  large  and  prosperous  class  of  cultivating 
peasantry  ;  but  it  is  at  all  events  likely  to  afford  an 
opportunity  for  the  men  of  exceptional  ability  and  energy 
to  rise  in  the  world,  and  thus  to  open  up  an  attraction  to 
induce  energetic  men  who  prefer  life  in  the  country  to 
settle  on  the  land. 

When  social  distinctions  are  insurmountable,  they  are 
likely  to  give  rise  to  increasing  bitterness  and  irritation, 
especially  if  there  is  no  obvious  reason  on  which  the 
difference  of  condition  rests.  But  class  distinctions,  which 
rest  on  differences  in  the  possession  of  personal  capital,  are 
surmountable  by  the  best  men  ;  and  since  they  give  rise 
to  modest  ambitions,  are  most  beneficial  in  a  society 
organised  on  the  basis  of  reward.  In  so  far  as  there  is  a 
ladder  by  which  a  man  may  rise  in  the  social  scale,  it  is 
the  greatest  stimulus  to  his  own  exertions  ;  while  the  desire 
to  prepare  his  sons  and  daughters  for  a  better  position  than 
he  himself  has  enjoyed  has  often  been  a  motive  for  lifelong 
sacrifice  of  present  enjoyment  for  the  sake  of  a  benefit  that 
will  accrue  to  the  next  generation.  If  this  stimulus  were 
withdrawn,  there  might  easily  be  a  reversion  from  the 
activity  of  modem  life  to  the  comparative  torpor  of  the 
Middle  Ages.  From  some  points  of  view  that  might  be 
desirable,  but  it  would  not  make  for  economic  vigour  or 
material  prosperity. 

(c)  If  we  look  more  specially  at  the  artisan  class,  we 
shall  find  that  there  is  great  difficulty  in  even  attempting 
to  compare  the  reward  of  the  industrial  labourer  in  the 
thirteenth  century  with  that  which  goes  to  him  in  the 
present  day,  as  the  circumstances  are  so  entirely  different. 
The  Cambridge  shoemaker  of  the  thirteenth  century  had  a 
very  small  market  to  cater  for,  and  the  authorities  were  able 
to  keep  the  business  of  supplying  it  in  the  hands  of  a  few 

H 


114  THE  REWARD  OF  SERVICES  [ch. 

neighbours.  The  craftsmen  had  no  reason  to  apprehend 
competition  from  without ;  pressure  was  put  upon  them  to 
suppl}^  good  quaHty,  and  they  were  frequently  allowed  to 
form  themselves  into  a  craft-guild  for  this  purpose;  each  one 
had  a  household,  and  might  be  assisted  by  a  journeyman  or 
two  and  an  apprentice,  but  these  men  had  not  much  oppor- 
tunity of  starting  a  business  on  their  own  account, 
and  continued  to  form  part  of  the  master's  household, 
sharing  in  the  food  that  was  provided,  and  receiving  in 
addition  regular  pay  that  did  not  vary  from  year  to  year. 
Under  these  circumstances,  it  was  possible  for  a  crafts- 
man consciously  and  deliberately  to  pursue  the  policy  of 
maintaining  the  rate  of  reward  by  limiting  the  amount 
supplied.  This  was  injurious  to  the  customers  ;  and  if 
carried  too  far,  would  call  for  the  intervention  of  the  mayor, 
who  would  take  steps  to  ensure  that  the  prices  charged 
should  be  reasonable ;  but  the  policy  itself  did  not  meet  with 
the  disapproval  of  the  authorities,  who  were  anxious  that 
the  householders  might  be  prosperous,  so  that  they  might 
pay  their  quota  of  rates  and  help  to  make  the  contributions 
which  were  due  aimually  from  a  corporate  town  to  the  king. 
No  serious  attempt  was  made  to  push  trade  or  develop 
business,  but  only  to  carry  on  each  calling  according  to  the 
standard  on  which  it  was  organised,  and  to  maintain  the 
habitual  rate  of  reward.  According  to  this  policy,  the 
conditions  of  the  producer  were  allowed  to  be  the  first 
consideration,  and  the  customer  had  to  pay  a  price  at  which 
these  conditions  could  be  regularly  maintained. 

The  policy  of  English  merchants,  who  engaged  in  foreign 
trade  and  in  exporting  English  commodities  to  foreign 
countries,  was  based  on  the  same  ideas.  They  did  not 
attempt  to  push  the  trade,  but  to  limit  the  amount  supplied, 
so  as  to  keep  up  the  price  paid  by  purchasers  in  foreign 
towns.  The  whole  system  of  trading  by  regulated  com- 
panies was  organised  with  this  object ;  careful  arrange- 
ments were  made  that  no  member  of  the  company  should 


n.]  ATTRACTING  PUBLIC  CUSTOM  115 

deal  on  terms  which  spoiled  the  market  for  his  associates ; 
and  the  company  regulated  the  total  amount  of  export 
for  each  year,  so  that  prices  might  be  maintained.  This 
policy  also  had,  on  the  whole,  the  approval  <  f  the  an'  horities; 
in  the  time  of  Edward  iii.  they  limited  the  p.  ice  at  which 
wool  should  be  exported,^  as  it  seemed  more  economical 
that  Englishmen  should  have  the  wool  to  use  at  home,  than 
that  craftsmen  beyond  the  seas  should  be  supplied  with 
materials  at  very  low  rates.  Throughout  the  Middle  Ages 
the  interest  of  the  purchaser,  at  home  or  abroad,  was 
regarded  as  secondary  ;  the  interest  of  the  producer,  and 
the  conditions  of  production,  were  taken  as  practically 
fixed,  and  they  could  be  made  the  dominant  consideration 
in  adjusting  the  price. 

In  modern  times  this  policy  has  been  completely  re- 
versed ;  the  interest  of  the  consumer  and  purchaser  has 
come  to  be  put  in  the  forefront,  and  the  interests  of  the 
producer  have  been  treated  as  secondary.  The  steps  by 
which  this  change  occurred  can  be  briefly  indicated,  for 
the  institutions,  which  gave  effect  to  the  mediaeval  pohcy, 
came  to  be  the  subject  of  complaint  and  were  gradually 
broken  down.  In  the  fifteenth  century  we  find  frequent 
complaints  by  the  purchasers  as  to  the  unreasonable 
ordinances  made  by  the  craft-guilds  ;  and  these  complaints 
were  re-echoed  by  journeymen  craftsmen,  who  were  pre- 
vented from  starting  a  business  of  their  own,  and  could 
not  secure  a  status  of  economic  independence.  Craftsmen, 
who  settled  in  villages  or  suburbs,  entered  into  successful 
competition  with  those  who  resided  in  corporate  towns ; 
and  the  whole  system  of  exclusive  trade  privileges  within 
the  towns,  and  of  substantial  contributions  from  the  towns, 
broke  down  at  the  Reformation  era.  Elizabeth  attempted 
to  reorganise  the  industrial  system  and  created  machinery 
by  which  the  training  of  the  workmen  and  the  quality  of 
goods  should  be  maintained  throughout  the  whole  country ; 
1  Growth,  oj  English  Ind  uslry  and  Commerce  in  Early  and  Middle  Ages,  p.  314. 


116  -   THE  REWARD  OF  SERVICES  [ch. 

she  provided  facilities  for  preventing  demands  for  un- 
reasonabty  high  prices  ;  and  the  craftsmen  in  toTviis  lost 
the  power  of  so  dominating  the  market  as  to  prevent  the 
competition  of  other  dealers.  They  no  longer  retained  a 
privileged  position  for  setting  a  price  and  keeping  the 
welfare  of  producers  in  the  first  place. 

The  struggle  in  regard  to  export  trade  came  somewhat 
later  ;  it  was  carried  on  during  the  whole  of  the  seventeenth 
century,  and  was  maintained  to  some  extent  throughout 
the  eighteenth  and  early  part  of  the  nineteenth.  Inter- 
lopers succeeded  in  establishing  trade  with  foreign  parts, 
in  spite  of  the  efforts  of  the  authorised  companies  to 
suppress  their  competition  ;  and  manufacturers  complained 
that  they  could  obtain  a  far  larger  sale  for  their  goods, 
and  do  much  better  business,  if  the  restrictions  were  swept 
away.  Hence  competition,  of  buyers  with  buyers,  and 
sellers  with  sellers,  came  to  be  the  accepted  method  of 
determining  prices  both  in  internal  and  external  trade. 
The  producers  had  lost  the  power  of  controlling  prices  in 
their  own  interest,  and  the  purchasing  public  at  home  and 
abroad  began  to  reap  the  benefit  of  the  change.  As  this 
process  went  on,  a  new  policy  for  attaining  success  in  busi- 
ness was  devised ;  it  became  clear  that  it  was  necessary 
to  push  trade  by  getting  a  larger  and  larger  circle  of 
customers.  Tlie  obvious  means  of  attracting  custom  was 
by  offering  goods  at  low  prices  ;  and  as  time  has  gone  on,  an 
enormous  army  of  commercial  travellers  has  been  organised, 
in  order  that  manufacturers  may  secure  orders,  and  im- 
mense sums  are  spent  in  appeals  to  attract  the  custom  of 
the  public  by  means  of  advertisement.  The  effort  to 
manufacture  on  a  large  scale,  and  therefore  at  less  expense, 
has  led  to  the  transformation  of  business  in  many  ways,  and 
the  crushing  out  of  those  who  could  only  manufacture  on  a 
small  scale.  It  has  all  come  about  under  the  new  policy 
of  trying  to  cater  for  the  requirements  of  the  public,  on  the 
most  attractive  possible  terms  and  therefore  at  the  lowest 


11.]  ATTRACTING  PUBLIC  CUSTOM  117 

prices,  and  of  allowing  the  conditions  of  work  and  lalc 
of  reward  to  adjust  themselves  as  best  the}'  inay  to  the 
conditions  of  price. 

Tlie  capitalist,  whether  as  merchant  or  manufacturer,  is 
the  medium  through  which  this  new  industrial  policy  is 
carried  out.  He  is  a  voluntary  agent,  since  he  undertakes 
this  work  of  his  own  free  will  ;  but  he  is  not  a  free  agent, 
in  the  sense  that  he  can  control  prices,  or  pay  wages,  exactly 
as  he  likes.  The  limits  within  which  he  is  free  to  exercise 
any  considerable  discretion  are  very  narrow  indeed. 
Prices  are  determined  by  supply  and  demand  ;  he  has 
comparatively  little  power  of  limiting  supply  ;  and  the  best 
hope  of  maintaining,  or  increasing,  the  reward  of  those 
engaged  in  production,  lies  in  stimulating  the  demand. 
The  only  method  of  doing  this,  which  can  be  successfully 
pursued  as  a  regular  and  constant  thing,  and  without  injury 
to  any  of  the  parties  concerned,  is  that  of  maintaining  the 
highest  possible  degree  of  efficiency,  and  continually 
endeavouring  to  readjust  the  methods  of  production  and 
the  organisation  of  business,  so  that  the  public  shall  be 
served  w^ith  the  best  possible  article  at  the  lowest  reasonable 
price.  Since  the  middle  of  last  century,  the  desirability  of 
pursuing  the  economic  policy,  which  regards  the  interests  of 
the  consumer  as  of  primary  importance,  has  been  accepted 
in  this  country  as  almost  axiomatic.  The  working  classes, 
who  have  little  money  to  spend,  are  eager  supporters  of  low 
prices ;  as  they  desire  to  get  as  much  as  they  can  for  their 
money,  without  giving  much  thought  to  ulterior  conse- 
quences. The  advisability  of  endeavouring  to  cater  for  the 
public  on  the  best  possible  terms  is  not  likely  to  be  seriously 
called  in  question,  but  there  may  be  good  grounds  for  trying 
to  modify  the  action  of  this  principle  in  particular  cases, 
especially  when  political  reasons  come  into  pla}'.  So  long 
as  this  principle  holds  its  owti,  the  prosperity  of  the  country 
can  only  be  secured  by  the  general  adoption  of  the  method.s 
of  business  which  it  demands. 


118  THE  REWARD  OF  SERVICES  [ch. 

The  plans  for  carrying  out  this  poHcy,  which  are  some- 
times adopted,  may,  however,  be  very  injurious  ;  attempts 
may  be  made  to  push  business  by  methods  which  are  incon- 
sistent with  the  permanent  well-being  of  a  trade.  Prices 
may  be  lowered  by  offering  goods  of  inferior  quality, 
though  this  is  likely  before  long  to  have  an  injurious  effect 
on  the  market  for  wares  that  are  so  good  as  to  be  really 
cheap  at  a  higher  price.  On  the  other  hand,  the  effort  to 
organise  business,  with  a  view  to  cheap  production,  may  be 
carried  on  in  such  a  fashion  as  to  press  unduly  on  those 
who  work  for  wages  ;  employers  are  in  a  position  in  which 
they  may  be  able  to  drive  hard  bargains  both  as  to  the 
hours  of  work  and  the  rates  of  pay,^  and  to  pass  on  the  risk 
of  the  loss,  which  arises  from  the  fluctuations  of  business, 
to  be  borne  by  those  who  are  thrown  out  of  employment. 
In  so  far  as  the  deterioration  of  the  workman  follows, 
such  action  is  not  in  the  interest  of  business  success  in  the 
long  run.  These  unwise  methods  of  competition  have  been 
met,  partly  by  agreements  between  capitalists  as  to  the 
course  which  it  was  desirable  to  pursue,  and  still  more  by 
the  action  of  artisans  themselves.  The  fundamental  aim  of 
trades  unions  has  been  to  maintain  a  higher  standard  of 
life,  by  securing  both  a  standard  day  and  a  standard  rate 
of  pay  ;  and  thus  to  reintroduce  and  maintain  definite 
conditions  for  the  labourer,  even  under  a  regime  in  which 
prices  are  settled  by  competition. 

It  was  almost  inevitable  that  these  conflicting  views 
should  give  rise  to  struggles  which  have  been  carried  on 
with  much  bitterness.  The  working  classes  of  the  country 
have  never  really  abandoned  this  belief  that  it  is  possible 
to  maintain  higher  prices,  and  the  means  of  increasing  the 
rate  of  reward,  by  restricting  the  supply.  They  are  in- 
clined to  think  that  the  capitalists  could  take  this  course 
if  they  chose,  and  to  suspect  that  the  unwillingness  of 
masters  to  do  so  is  due  to  mere  callousness  and  greed  of 
*  See  aboye,  p.  105. 


II.]  ATTRACTING  PUBLIC  CU>STOM  119 

gain.  They  have  been  inclined  to  resist  all  labour-saving 
improvements,  as  the  workmen  in  the  cloth  trade  protested 
against  the  use  of  gig-mills/  and  the  women  of  Suffolk 
organised  opposition  to  spinning  jennies.^  The  rules 
which  have  been  made  by  some  unions  have  operated  to 
prevent  the  master  from  organising  the  labour  he  employs 
in  what  he  regards  as  the  best  possible  way  ;  hence  their 
continued  reliance  on  the  mediaeval  policy,  of  maintaining 
reward  by  limiting  supply,  has  led  them  to  disregard  the 
supreme  importance  of  increased  efficiency  in  business, 
even  when  they  have  not  consciously  opposed  it.  The 
capitalists,  who  are  thorough-going  adherents  of  the 
modern  commercial  policy,  can  hardly  help  regarding  the 
surviving  influence  of  mediaeval  ideas  as  exceedingly  mis- 
chievous ;  and  they  are  apt  to  stigmatise  the  conduct  to 
which  it  gives  rise  as  utterly  ignorant  and  almost  criminal. 
Bitter  as  the  struggle  has  been,  and  great  as  is  the  suffer- 
ing it  has  caused,  there  is  some  satisfaction  in  seeing 
that  it  has  arisen  out  of  conflicting  views  in  regard  to 
business  methods.  There  is  hope  that  the  conflict  will 
be  allayed  as  further  experience  gives  us  clearer  views  as 
to  the  policy  which,  in  the  present  circumstances  of  the 
country,  is  most  likely  to  promote  the  welfare  of  the 
community. 

The  organisation  of  the  great  trades  of  the  country,  on  a 
large  scale,  has  forced  the  leaders  of  the  men's  unions  to 
look  beyond  local  conditions,  and  to  endeavour  to  consider 
the  condition  of  certain  branches  of  industry  throughout 
the  country  as  a  whole.  This  is  an  important  step  towards 
recognising  the  impossibility  of  seriously  attempting  to 
maintain  favourable  conditions  of  reward  by  limiting  the 
output.  \Miile  restriction  may  answer  to  effect  a  reduction 
in  the  fluctuations  from  which  business  suffers,  it  cannot  be 
an  important  element  in  maintaining  our  trade  against 

1  Groicth  of  English  Industry  and  Commerce  in  Modem  Times,  p.  661. 

2  Ibid.,  p.  654. 


120  THE  REWARD  OF  SERVICES  [ch. 

foreign  rivals.  If  this  is  to  be  done,  the  union  leaders  must 
realise  their  obligation  to  take  a  part  in  endeavouring  to 
maintain  the  industry  of  the  country  in  a  high  state  of 
efficiency,  and  must  be  prepared  to  co-operate  heartily 
with  the  employers  in  aiming  at  this  first  essential  to 
continued  industrial  success  in  the  modern  world. 

{d)  When  labourers  are  successful  in  securing  more 
favourable  conditions,  or  a  higher  rate  of  reward,  in  a  trade 
in  which  the  employers  have  no  monopoly,  their  profits 
are  likely  to  fall.^  Every  employer  will  endeavour  to  recoup 
himself  for  the  additional  outlay,  and  will  try  if  possible 
to  increase  efficiency,  by  declining  to  employ  any  but  the 
most  efficient  workmen.  If  the  union  insists  on  enforcing 
a  higher  rate  of  pay,  the  masters  are  unlikely  to  continue 
to  employ  men  who  are  past  their  best,  and  are  not 
worth  this  high  rate  of  pay.  Since  the  liability  of  the 
employers  for  compensation  for  accidents  has  been  estab- 
lished, they  are  less  willing  to  take  on  men  who  are  either 
careless  or  stupid,  or  who  from  any  other  reason  are  likely 
to  contribute  to  the  occurrence  of  an  accident.  In  this 
way,  an  effort  to  raise  the  standard  of  comfort  unduly  may 
easily  lead  to  the  weeding  out  of  many  men,  who  are  unable 
to  get  employment  in  their  own  calling,  and  who  cannot 
adapt  themselves  to  anything  else.  On  the  other  hand, 
the  employers  may  take  another  line  and  try  to  recoup 
themselves  for  the  extra  expense  by  raising  prices  to  the 
public.  This  may  be  a  difficult  course,  in  consequence  of 
the  possibility  of  importing  the  article  from  countries 
where  it  is  produced  under  different  conditions  ;  in  any 
case  it  is  likely  to  lead  to  a  reduction  of  the  demand,  and 
in  consequence  to  the  employment  of  a  smaller  number  of 
hands.  In  one  way  or  another,  the  attempt  to  secure  an 
inflated  reward — that  is  to  say,  a  larger  rate  of  reward 
without  any  alteration  in  the  methods  of  production — 
in  a  trade  in  which  there  is  no  monopoly,  is  likely  to  lead 

1  See  below,  p.  124. 


II.]  SWEATED  INDUSTRIES  121 

to  the  dismissal  of  the  less  eflficient  workmen,  or  to  the 
reduction  of  employment  generally. 

When  the  increased  reward  of  labour  is  accompanied  by 
an  increased  efficiency  of  labour,  no  incidental  evils  are 
likely  to  ensue,  as  production  will  be  maintained  or  in- 
creased and  the  trade  may  expand.  But  an  inflated  reward 
for  labour  is  likely  to  react  unfavourably  on  the  condition 
of  the  working  classes.  In  its  immediate  results  it  may 
be  similar  to  the  changes  caused  by  the  introduction  of 
labour-saving  machinery.  There  is  likely,  in  the  first 
instance,  to  be  less  employment  available.  But  since  the 
introduction  of  machinery  may  mean  cheaper  production, 
and  a  consequent  expansion  of  trade,  it  is  quite  likely  that 
the  displaced  labour  may  be  reabsorbed  as  the  trade  ex- 
pands. On  the  other  hand,  an  inflated  reward  for  labour 
does  not  lead  in  any  obvious  way  to  the  expansion  of  trade  ; 
there  is  no  likelihood  that  any  opportunity  will  occur  for 
reabsorbing  permanently  the  labour  that  has  been  thrown 
out,  in  consequence  of  the  granting  of  such  demands.  It 
may  be  impossible  to  say  beforehand  what  demands  for  an 
advance  ought  to  be  conceded  and  what  ought  not :  but 
the  course  of  events  decides  the  issue  :  where  unemploy- 
ment is  increased  through  the  granting  of  a  demand,  the 
demand  is  thereby  condemned  as  unjustified. 

(e)  There  has,  on  the  whole,  been  an  improvement  in 
efficiency  during  the  last  half  century,  and  the  habitual 
standard  of  comfort  among  the  artisan  classes  generally 
has  undoubtedly  improved  ;  but  there  are  certain  in- 
dustries in  which  this  is  not  the  case,  and  in  them  starvation 
rates  of  pay  have  become  the  rule.  The  sweated  industries 
are  for  the  most  part  a  curious  survival  of  an  element  of 
mediaeval  life  under  conditions  in  which  its  character  is 
entirely  changed.  The  sweater  is  in  many  ways  analogous 
to  the  craftsman  of  the  Middle  Ages,  who  had  the  whole 
organisation  of  the  industry  under  his  personal  control ; 
but  with  this  fundamental  difference,  that  the  craftsman  had 


128  THE  REWARD  OF  SERVICES  [ch. 

much  power  of  fixing  the  price,  while  the  modern  sweater 
generally  caters  for  customers  who  are  apt  to  be  entirely 
guided  by  considerations  of  cheapness.  In  many  cases  the 
sweater  is  partly  a  labourer,  and  partly  a  small  capitalist ; 
he  is  prepared  to  carry  on  his  business  at  less  than  the 
ordinary  rate  of  profit  and  at  less  than  the  ordinary  rate 
of  wages,  since  he  draws  his  living  partly  from  one  and 
partly  from  another.  He  may  be  a  workman  who  prefers, 
if  possible,  to  work  at  his  trade  on  his  own  account,  with 
some  subsidiary  help.  He  may,  in  other  cases,  be  a  middle- 
man who  is  ambitious  to  have  a  business  of  his  own,  and 
sees  a  chance  of  doing  so  by  starting  some  manufacture 
for  which  little  expensive  capital,  fixed-in  machines  and 
buildings,  is  required,  but  which  can  be  carried  on  by  obtain- 
ing the  services  of  persons  whose  labour  is  not  highly  skilled, 
and  who  work  in  their  own  homes.  The  ranks  of  semp- 
stresses are  recruited  from  those  who  are  thrown  out  from 
women's  employments  of  any  kind.  Just  because  the 
number  of  those  who  are  glad  to  get  work  of  some  kind  is 
so  large,  they  have  very  little  opportunity  of  agreeing 
together  to  drive  as  good  a  bargain  as  possible.  Rates  are 
forced  down,  not  necessarily  from  eagerness  to  grind  the 
faces  of  the  poor,  but  merely  because  acceptance  of  offers 
to  work  for  the  lowest  rate  of  hire  is  the  simplest  method  of 
selecting  among  a  crowd  of  applicants.  On  the  one  hand, 
the  public  desire  for  cheapness  tends  to  the  lowering  of  prices 
to  unremunerative  rates;  while  on  the  other,  there  has  been 
no  available  means  of  checking  the  power  of  driving  hard 
bargains,  and  no  opportunity  of  attempting  to  maintain 
a  standard  of  life.  Here  the  effects  of  competition  are  seen 
at  their  worst ;  but  even  in  this  case  it  must  be  remembered 
that  the  sweater  is  only  to  a  very  small  extent  a  free  agent 
in  the  manner  in  which  he  carries  on  his  business.  The 
influence  of  competition  is  too  strong  for  any  individual  to 
be  able  to  defy  it  altogether.  The  phenomena  of  sweating, 
in  whatever  way  it  may  be  possible  to  deal  with  them,  are  a 


II.]  PROFIT  AND  INTEREST  123 

standing  warning  against  the  dangers  which  are  inherent 
in  unregulated  competition  ;  and  a  proof  that  even  the 
principle,  of  treating  the  requirements  of  the  purchaser 
as  supreme,  may  be  carried  so  far  as  to  lead  to  the  serious 
injury  of  the  producer.  The  underlying  cause  of  the  evil 
is  certainly  to  be  found  in  the  undiscriminating  preference 
of  the  public  for  that  which  is  low-priced. 

3.  The  Profit  on  Capital 

(a)  The  income  which  accrues  to  the  capitalist  in  the 
form  of  profit  is  variable  and  uncertain  ;  if  we  leave  out 
of  account  the  large  rentier  class,  who  draw  dividends,  and 
fix  our  attention  on  those  who  are  actively  concerned  in 
business  themselves,  it  is  true  to  say  that  the  dates  when 
money  will  come  in,  and  the  rate  which  will  be  received, 
are  quite  uncertain.  The  landlord  expects  to  be  paid  at 
Michaelmas,  and  he  has  bargained  to  receive  a  definite  sum. 
The  clerk  draws  his  salary  quarterly,  and  the  artisan  gets 
his  wages  weekly,  and  each  can  tell  beforehand  the  amount 
that  will  be  due  to  him.  But  the  merchant  and  the 
manufacturer  are  not  in  the  same  position  ;  for  some 
months  or  years,  trade  may  be  so  bad  that  there  is  no  profit 
at  all,  while  other  periods  may  be  extraordinarily  success- 
ful, and  those  who  are  able  to  take  full  advantage  can  reap 
enormous  gains.  The  uncertainty,  which  affects  all  human 
affairs,  is  specially  characteristic  of  every  sort  of  com- 
mercial and  manufacturing  business ;  this  must  always 
involve  risks  of  loss  as  well  as  prospects  of  gain  ;  there 
must  be  an  element  of  speculation,  which  has  some  afDnity 
with  gambling,  and  the  men  who  engage  in  it  must  have 
some  enterprise.  The  landlord  lets  the  tenant  have  the 
use  of  his  land,  and  if  the  tenant  does  not  pay,  he  can  sue 
him  ;  the  artisan  works  for  the  master,  and  if  his  wages  are 
not  properly  paid,  he  can  go  into  court  to  recover  them. 
But  the  capitalist  does  not  render  a  specific  service  to 


144  THE  REWARD  OF  SERVICES  [ch. 

specific  people,  and  he  cannot  claim  a  reward  which  can 
be  enforced  in  the  courts  of  law  ;  he  simply  endeavours  to 
meet  the  requirements  of  the  public  and  cater  for  their 
wants  ;  the  service  which  he  thus  renders  is  requited  very 
indirectly,  and  through  a  large  number  of  intermediaries. 
Hence  we  can  see  the  precise  nature  of  profit ;  it  is  the 
difference  between  the  outlay  which  the  capitalist  makes  in 
cariying  on  his  business,  and  the  receipts  which  come  in 
from  his  business.  If  he  is  a  manufacturer,  he  must  pay 
what  is  needed  for  repairs,  replacement  of  machinery, 
materials,  wages,  and  salaries — including  an  allowance  for 
his  own  time  and  trouble  as  manager — in  order  to  keep  the 
business  going,  and  he  receives  money  by  the  sale  of  the 
product :  the  amount  by  which  the  receipts  exceed  the 
outlay  is  the  profit  on  his  capital. 

In  so  far  as  the  manufacturer  fails  to  meet  the  public 
taste,  and  has  his  goods  left  on  his  hands,  or  sells  them  at 
a  loss,  his  outlay  probably  exceeds  his  receipts,  so  that 
there  will  be  no  gain  at  all ;  and  further,  he  looks  to  the 
sales  to  replace  his  capital,  and  if  sales  fall  off  seriously, 
his  capital  is  eaten  into  and  reduced.  The  announcements 
of  bankruptcies  in  every  issue  of  the  London  Gazette  show 
what  an  enormous  number  of  capitalists  each  year  fail  in 
their  endeavours  to  meet  public  requirements,  and  not 
only  carry  on  business  without  making  anything  by  it,  but 
lose  their  capital  altogether.  The  capitalist  merchant 
renders  services  to  the  community  by  giving  access  to  other 
markets,  or  by  assisting  production  ;  and,  if  the  service  he 
offers  is  not  appreciated,  he  stands  to  lose.  The  rate  of 
profit  is  likely  to  vary  on  every  transaction  ;  sometimes  it 
is  a  minus  quantity,  sometimes  it  is  very  large.  The  rate 
of  profit  is  so  variable  that  it  can  hardly  be  quoted  from 
week  to  week  ;  but  over  any  period,  such  as  a  year  or  more, 
there  is  an  average  rate.  The  competition  of  other  capital- 
ists will  prevent  any  man  who  has  hit  on  a  successful 
enterprise  from  enjoying,  for  any  great  length  of  time. 


II.]  PKOFIT  AND  INTEREST  125 

profits  which  exceed  the  average.  Capital  is  not  likely  to 
be  replaced  or  reinvested  in  enterprises  which  yield  less 
than  the  average  rate  of  profit,  and  a  diminution  of  the 
quantities  supplied  may  lead  to  an  improvement  in  price, 
and  thus  bring  up  the  profit  again  to  the  average  rate. 

Those  enterprises  which,  at  any  place  and  time,  are 
most  successful  in  meeting  public  requirements,  are  the 
undertakings  which  yield  the  largest  return  ;  and  men  who 
are  engaged  in  them  are  anxious  to  obtain  the  command  of 
additional  capital  as  easily  as  possible,  so  as  to  be  able  to 
take  advantage  of  the  high  rate  of  profit  while  it  lasts. 
Such  chances  may  open  out  very  quickly  in  commercial 
pursuits  ;  while  the  manufacturer  will  also  desire,  at  times, 
to  obtain  additional  capital  in  order  to  reorganise  his 
business,  or  to  enlarge  the  scale  of  his  operations,  in  the 
hope  of  making  reductions  in  the  cost  of  production  and 
the  rate  of  outlay.  Hence  prosperous  men  of  business  are 
often  anxious  to  borrow  capital,  for  a  time,  or  for  a  long 
period.  The  borrower  ofiFers  a  definite  rate  of  return,  to  be 
paid  at  regular  intervals  as  interest,  since  he  believes  that 
he  can  use  the  borrowed  capital  to  advantage,  and  make 
such  a  profit  from  it,  that,  after  he  has  paid  the  interest,  he 
will  have  a  substantial  gain  left  in  his  owti  hands.  The 
expansion  of  the  power  of  borrowing  capital,  either  through 
banlvs,  or  from  private  individuals,  runs  through  the  whole 
of  modern  business.  It  makes  for  the  extension  of  business 
and  the  increase  of  employment,  and  is  thus  advantageous 
to  the  public  and  to  the  prosperous  men  who  borrow  ;  while 
it  also  gives  good  opportunities  to  many  people  to  find 
remunerative  employment  for  their  savings.  Many  persons 
have  neither  the  enterprise  nor  the  knowledge  that  would 
be  requisite  to  induce  them  to  face  the  uncertainty  of 
business,  and  their  money  might  lie  idle,  and  fail  to  bring 
them  any  income,  unless  they  were  able  to  put  it  out  at 
moderate  interest  which  they  can  count  upon  receiving 
with  practical  certainty. 


126  THE  REWARD  OF  SERVICES  [ch. 

(6)  The  advantages  of  being  able  to  borrow  or  to  lend  at 
moderate  interest  are,  to  our  minds,  so  obvious  that  we 
have  great  difficulty  in  sympathising  with  the  condemna- 
tion of  interest — the  bargaining  for  gain  for  certain  on 
secured  capital — which  was  enforced  all  through  the 
Middle  Ages,  and  which  still  found  sympathisers  among 
playgoers  when  the  Merchant  of  Venice  was  put  on  the 
stage  and  Shylock  was  held  up  to  scorn  for  his  '  interests.' 

The  popular  conception  in  the  Elizabethan  age,  of  a 
man  who  let  out  his  money  at  interest,  was  that  of  an 
oppressor  who  was  able  to  take  advantage  of  the  necessities 
of  other  people.  He  did  not  engage  in  the  uncertainties 
of  trade,  or  make  ventures  across  the  sea,  but  secured 
himself  as  far  as  possible  against  any  risk  of  loss,  and 
while  avoiding  all  risk,  he  bargained  not  only  to  share  in 
the  profits,  but  to  get  gain  for  certain,  even  when  the 
enterprise  was  a  failure,  and  the  borrower  had  not  got  any 
gain  but  had  besides  lost  his  capital.  Such  a  Shylock 
showed  no  enterprise,  and  took  no  risks  he  could  help  ; 
but  he  went  on  gaining  steadily  all  the  time,  and  he  attained 
a  position  from  which  he  was  able  to  prey  on  the  necessities 
of  better  men.  But  the  picture  was  ceasing  to  be  true  : 
even  at  that  time,  the  borrower  was  generally  the  wealthy 
man,  who  was  willing,  for  a  stated  sum,  to  share  his 
opportunities  for  gain  with  the  man  of  comparatively  small 
means.  The  ordinary  conscience  failed  to  see  that  there 
was  any  real  risk  of  extortion  in  such  a  transaction ;  and 
the  objection  to  interest,  or  moderate  usury,  was  swept 
away  as  a  mere  pedantry.  The  law  of  the  land  was  content, 
in  1624,  to  prohibit  excessive  interest,  or  '  biting  usury ' ; 
where  excessive  rates  were  demanded,  it  might  be  assumed 
that  the  lender  was  taking  advantage  of  the  necessities  of 
a  poor  man  to  drive  a  hard  bargain  ;  but  it  seemed  that 
under  the  new  conditions  of  industry  and  commerce,  and 
with  expanding  trade,  moderate  interest  was  likely  to  be 
fair,  as  between  man  and  man,  and  that  there  was  no 


IL]  INTEREST  AND  EXTORTION  127 

longer  any  reason  for  the  law  of  the  land  to  prohibit  it 
altogether. 

There  had  also  been  changes  in  administrative  practice 
which  tended  to  render  the  mediaeval  view  anachronistic  in 
Elizabethan  times.  While  feudal  aids  and  such  occasional 
demands  for  contributions  to  royal  necessities  were  in 
vogue,  the  taxpayer  was  in  danger  of  finding  himself 
suddenly  confronted  by  a  requisition  for  the  payment  of  a 
large  sum  which  he  could  only  obtain  by  borrowing  :  hence 
the  lender  could  make  terms  with  a  man  of  no  great  wealth, 
who  was  reduced  to  straits  by  a  sudden  emergency.  When 
regular  taxation  became  more  developed  as  a  source  of 
revenue,  the  administrators  were  often  anxious  to  get 
possession  of  the  money  at  once,  before  the  tedious  process 
of  collection  was  completed ;  borrowing  in  anticipation 
of  revenue  was  a  constant  practice,  at  all  events  in  the 
seventeenth  century.  Thus  it  came  about  that  the  power- 
ful tax-receiver,  and  not  the  impoverished  taxpayer,  was 
likely  to  be  the  borrower  in  the  modern  system  of  finance  ; 
and  from  this  point  of  view  also,  the  danger  of  extortion 
was  much  less  serious  than  it  had  been  in  xAjigevin  times. 
There  did  not  seem  to  be  any  likelihood  of  private  injury 
arising  in  connection  with  the  practice  of  lending  on 
moderate  interest ;  and  consciences  were  not  stirred  by 
any  doubts  as  to  whether  a  proprietor  was  justified  in 
shirking  responsibility  for  the  use  made  of  his  money. ^ 

(c)  At  the  same  time,  it  is  not  clear  that  the  change  has 
been  beneficial  to  the  community  generally.  The  oppor- 
tunities for  trading  on  borrowed  capital  enable  the  dealer, 
or  manufacturer,  to  expand  his  business  rapidly  ;  and 
sudden  expansion  is  often  followed  by  overtrading  and  a 
long  period  of  depression.  These  sudden  fluctuations  give 
great  opportunities  for  particular  men  to  make  fortunes, 
but  they  are  not  favourable  to  a  steady  and  healthy 
development,  and  they  are  often  terribly  mischievous  to 
»  Bee  below,  p.  192. 


188  THE  REWARD  OF  SERVICES  [ch. 

the  working  classes.  Further,  the  facilities  for  borrowing, 
which  might  have  enabled  landowners  to  develop  their 
estates,  have  sometimes  been  used  in  building  up  extra- 
vagant residences,  or  in  other  forms  of  unremunerative 
expenditure,  so  that  many  estates  have  been  heavily 
burdened,  and  agricultural  progress  has  been  delayed. 
The  facilities  which  nations  and  towns  enjoy  for  raising 
large  sums  on  the  assignment  of  taxes,  or  the  security  of 
rates,  have  also  been  much  abused.  The  huge  armaments, 
with  which  the  great  powers  of  the  world  are  equipped,  are 
extravagances  in  which  nations  would  have  been  much  less 
likely  to  indulge  if  they  had  been  unable  to  borrow  ;  and 
the  accumulation  of  national  and  municipal  indebtedness  is 
exercising  a  very  heavy  pressure  on  the  payer  of  taxes  and 
rates.  It  is  at  least  plausible  to  argue  that  the  modern 
practice  of  borrowing,  and  the  whole  system  of  credit  which 
has  grown  up  in  connection  with  it,  is  responsible  for  some 
of  the  most  regrettable  features  of  modern  society,  and  that 
it  would  have  been  a  good  thing  if  the  ecclesiastical  author- 
ities under  James  i.  had  been  able  to  enforce  their  censures,^ 
and  to  prevent  the  new  developments  of  trade  and  of 
banking  from  taking  place. 

While  I  have  great  sympathy  with  this  opinion,^  and 
feel  in  regard  to  many  of  the  evils  of  our  modern  industry 
and  commercial  system  that  prevention  might  have  been 
easier  than  cure,  I  do  not  feel  satisfied  that,  even  if  we  could 
do  so,  it  would  be  wise  to  abandon  the  use  of  such  a  powerful 
factor  as  credit  has  become,  because  of  the  incidental  evils 
that  have  arisen  in  connection  with  it :  rather  than  discard 
it  altogether,  we  may  do  well  to  set  ourselves  to  use  it 
prudently.  Credit  is  a  powerful  instrument  for  the  pro- 
duction of  wealth  ;  it  gives  the  means  of  procuring  capital 
and  setting  labour  to  work  ;  it  enabled  the  government  to 

1  Canon  cix.  of  1603.     See  also  21  Jas.  i.  c.  17. 

•  Tht  AUernutive  to  Socialism  in  England,  read  before  the  Cambridge 
Economic  Clnb,  1885. 


II.]  WASTE  AND  ORGANISATION  129 

steer  the  British  nation  successfully  through  the  great 
struggle  with  Napoleon.  Progress  is  being  made  in  under- 
standing how  to  deal  with  it  wisely.  The  ei'^hteenth 
century  acquired  much  experience  as  to  the  nature  of 
crodit.  and  the  contlitloiis  which  arc  necessary  to  give 
stability  to  the  banking  system ;  and  the  periodical 
commercial  crises,  which  characterised  the  first  three- 
quarters  of  the  nineteentli  century,  have  not  recurred  so 
regularly  as  to  confirm  the  impression  that  they  are 
inevitable.  The  supervision  which  is  exercised  by  the 
Local  Government  Board  over  municipal  borrowing  is 
a  wholesome  check  to  corporate  extravagance.  These 
considerations  seem  to  show  that  the  credit  system  need 
not  be  regarded  as  an  untanieable  monster,  but  as  a  great 
economic  power  which  can  be  brought  under  rational 
control  and  be  wisely  directed.  In  so  far  as  this  is  the  case, 
it  is  not  only  advantageous  to  individuals  but  beneficial 
to  the  community  as  well. 

(d)  In  so  far  as  gain  accrues  to  the  capitahst  because 
of  a  real  service  rendered  to  the  public,  it  is  legitimate 
profit,  and  the  fair  reward  of  successful  enterprise.  There 
have  been  cases  in  which  capitalists  have  tried  to  increase 
profits  by  diminishing  the  outlay,  so  as  to  leave  a  larger 
margin  between  expenses  and  the  receipts  from  sales  ;  and 
this  diminution  of  outlay  has  brought  serious  pressure  to 
bear  upon  the  labourer  ;^  but  the  gains  of  the  capitalist, 
when  they  are  not  earned  by  service  to  the  public,  are  more 
likely  to  be  obtained  at  the  expense  of  other  capitalists. 
The  competition  between  capitalists  is  keen,  and  there  are 
many  cases  where  all  of  those  engaged  in  a  trade  have  been 
seriously  damaged  by  the  reckless  speculation  of  one  or 
two  men,  who  have  '  cut '  prices  and  have  rendered  the 
trade  unremunerative  for  a  time.  In  much  modern  business, 
deliberate  efforts  are  made  to  establish  a  corner,  and  so  to 
place  rival  traders  in  a  position  in  which  they  can  be 
1  See  above,  p.  105. 
1 


130  THE  EEWARD  OF  SERVICES  [ch. 

severely  squeezed  by  more  acute  rivals.  These  speculative 
movements  are  injurious  to  the  public,  inasmuch  as  they 
introduce  arbitrary  fluctuations  of  prices  and  irregularities 
in  trade  ;  but  the  direct  loss  falls,  not  on  the  public  at 
large,  but  on  those  members  of  trading  circles  who  have 
been  unable  to  meet  their  engagements.  Market  competi- 
tion may  be  carried  on  as  a  sort  of  war  in  which  the  weak 
go  to  the  wall,  and  the  spoils  fall  to  the  victors  ;  and  it  is 
probably  almost  impossible  to  prevent  competitors  from 
having  recourse  to  such  tactics,  although  they  lead  to  a 
disturbance  of  trade  and  a  waste  of  capital.  There  is  also 
much  outlay  that  does  not  seem  to  serve  any  good  purpose, 
so  far  as  the  public  are  concerned,  in  pushing  the  wares  of 
one  firm  against  those  offered  by  another.  The  various 
forms  of  soap  and  of  mustard,  which  are  largely  advertised, 
are  all  good  enough  for  public  requirements,  and  there  is  no 
particular  advantage  to  the  community  in  the  costly  means 
which  are  taken  to  create  a  demand  for  the  wares  supplied 
by  one  firm,  rather  than  for  the  article  recommended  by 
another.  The  competition  of  capitalists  with  capitalists 
involves  a  great  deal  of  destruction  of  capital,  when  traders 
are  ruined  by  reckless  competition,  and  a  great  deal  of 
unnecessary  outlay  and  therefore  of  waste. 

This  waste  is  an  economic  rather  than  a  social  question  ; 
it  occurs  at  the  expense  of  men  of  enterprise,  who  can  hardly 
claim  the  protection  of  the  State  against  oppressors,  and 
who  can  obtain  redress  if  they  have  been  fraudulently 
treated.  At  the  same  time  it  is  a  waste,  and  improved 
organisation  may  do  much  to  reduce  and  prevent  it.  The 
waste  which  arises  in  connection  with  advertisement  and 
the  competition  of  retail  traders,  is  greatly  reduced  by  the 
introduction  of  the  co-operative  principle,  as  it  was  put 
in  practice  by  the  Rochdale  Pioneers.^  By  trading  for  a 
definite  market  it  was  possible  to  suit  the  requirements  of 
customers  with  less  leakage,  and  the  system  of  accumulating 
1  J.  S.  Mill,  Political  Economy,  iv.  vii.  §  6,  p.  784. 


n.]  MUNICIPAL  ENTERPRISE  131 

discounts  on  purchases  proved  a  particularly  convenient 
method  of  saving.  The  various  forms  of  co-partnership, 
from  the  colUery  experiment  of  the  Messrs.  Briggs  '  to  the 
proposal  made  by  Sir  Christopher  Furness.^  tend  to  effect 
savings  in  supervision,  to  insure  against  the  interruption  of 
business,  and  to  reduce  outlay.  On  the  other  hand,  the 
combinations  in  Trusts  practically  exclude  hostile  competi- 
tion from  some  of  the  great  departments  of  productive 
industry.  On  all  sides  the  growth  of  organisation  is  going 
on  ;  and  as  it  advances,  the  sphere  which  is  available  for 
reckless  and  wasteful  competition  is  narrowed.  Even  in 
such  a  case  as  that  of  the  Standard  Oil  Company,  where  a 
great  company  was  built  up  by  most  high-handed  and 
unscrupulous  methods,^  it  is  not  clear  that  the  public  have 
been  worse  served  than  they  would  have  been  under  a 
competitive  system. 

(c)  There  are  many  cases  where  it  appears  that  the  wastes 
of  competition  can  be  got  rid  of  by  municipal  or  national 
enterprise,  in  undertaking  some  particular  kind  of  business.- 
It  is  obviously  advantageous,  from  the  civic  point  of  view, 
that  the  tramways,  electric  lighting,  gas  and  water  supplies, 
which  involve  interference  with  the  use  of  the  public 
thoroughfares,  should  all  be  in  the  hands  of  one  responsible 
body,  so  that  there  may  be  the  minimum  of  interference 
with  traffic  in  laying  down  and  maintaining  the  systems  of 
supply  ;  even  if  they  could  not  be  worked  so  remuneratively 
under  municipal  as  under  private  management,  there  would 
be  some  advantage  in  having  them  carried  on  as  public 
affairs.  In  all  probability,  however,  there  might  be  a 
saving  ;  for  one  thing,  a  municipalitj'  is  likely  to  be  able 
to  borrow  on  advantageous  terms,  and  to  obtain  the  use  of 
capital  cheaply  ;  and  in  the  laying  down  a  large  fixed  plant, 
such  as  is  necessaiy  for  a  gas  or  water  supply,  the  clement 
of  capital  enters  largely.     On  the  other  hand,  though  a 

1  J.  S.  Mill,  Political  Econmnj/,  p.  771.  ^  Times,  8th  October  1908. 

»  Ida  M.  Tarbell,  History  of  the  Stajidard  Oil  Company. 


132  THE  REWARD  OF  SERVICES  [ch. 

supply  of  pure  milk  may  be  very  requisite  for  the  welfare 
of  the  community,^  the  method  of  delivery,  from  door  to 
door,  renders  the  trade  less  appropriate  for  town  authorities 
to  take  into  their  own  hands,  while  the  business  involves 
much  personal  supervision  in  all  its  details  ;  and  in  securing 
that  this  should  be  regularly  and  constantly  given,  the 
municipality  would  be  at  a  positive  disadvantage,  as  com- 
pared with  private  persons  each  managing  a  business  of 
his  own.  In  such  a  case  the  best  results  can  probably  be 
maintained  by  private  enterprise,  working  under  public 
inspection  and  supervision.  Where  the  work  is  done  better, 
or  at  less  expense,  and  public  requirements  are  better  met 
by  municipal  trading  than  by  private  individuals,  municipal 
enterprise  may  perhaps  be  preferred  ;  but  where  private 
enterprise  is  doing  the  work  well,  there  is  no  good  reason  for 
attempting  to  transfer  any  branch  of  business  to  the  local 
authorities.  The  onus  'prohandi  in  any  particular  case, 
and  the  proof  that  there  will  be  an  economic  or  social  gain, 
lies  with  those  who  wish  to  oust  private  enterprise  and 
substitute  authoritative  control. 

It  is  a  matter  for  careful  consideration  then,  whether  a 
municipality  is  wise  to  enter  on  some  department  of  trading, 
even  when  it  will  have  the  whole  w^ork  of  supplying  local 
requirements  in  its  own  hands — as  in  the  case  of  gas  or 
tramway  service.  The  case  is  quite  different  where  the 
business  is  so  large  that  the  local  authorities  have  difl&culty 
in  taking  over  the  whole  of  it,  and  merely  enter  into 
competition  with  private  persons ;  this  they  must  do  if  they 
are  content  to  aim  at  supplying  some  limited  part  of  the 
local  needs.  In  competing  with  private  persons,  munici- 
pahties  are  able  to  bring  a  good  deal  of  indirect  pressure  to 
bear  in  their  own  favour  ;  while  they  have  the  ratepayers' 
money  behind  them,  and  are  not  forced  to  be  at  pains  to 
work  at  a  profit.     It  may  be  argued,  that  the  municipality 

1  'Report  of  the  Royal  Commissiou  on  the  Poor  Law,'  in  Parliamentary 
Papers,  1909,  p.  795. 


n.]  MUNICIPAL  ENTERPRISE  133 

ought,  even  at  the  risk  of  loss,  to  rlear  out  insanitary 
property  and  build  decent  acconiniodation  for  the  poor, 
while  private  enterprise  in  providing  houses  is  hampered  by 
the  regulations  laid  down  by  the  authorities  in  regard  to  new 
buildings.  Under  such  circumstances,  there  must  be  very 
great  risk  of  financial  loss  on  the  part  of  any  individual, 
who  might  have  been  otherwise  prepared  to  erect  cheap 
houses  as  a  speculation.  If  builders  feel  that  they  have 
to  compete  against  municipal  philanthropy,  they  are  less 
likely  to  set  about  building  houses  at  their  ovm  risk  ;  the 
municipality  may  easily  check  private  enterprise,  and  then 
find  that  the  problem  of  overcrowding  is  more  and  more 
difficult  to  deal  with.  The  main  point,  in  relieving  over- 
crowding, is  to  supply  a  sufficient  number  of  houses  to 
accommodate  the  population  as  it  continues  to  grow  ;  and 
in  this,  private  enterprise  has,  on  the  whole,  been  veiy 
successful.  So  long  as  this  process  goes  on,  congestion  is 
not  likely  to  be  increased,  and  the  overcrowding  in  particu- 
lar streets  and  tenements  can  be  gradually  dealt  with. 
More  drastic  measures  need  not  necessarily  produce  a 
beneficial  result  that  will  be  at  all  permanent,  and  that  is 
not  counterbalanced  by  an  increase  of  the  mischief  in 
other  districts.  Occasional  interference,  in  the  sudden 
sweeping  away  of  some  rookery,  is  only  likely  to  diffuse 
the  evil  of  overcrowding,  not  to  eradicate  it ;  if  the  ac- 
commodation provided  in  the  houses  rebuilt  on  the  old 
site  does  not  serve  for  so  many  people,  even  though  the 
quality  of  accommodation  is  better,  and  it  is  let  at  an 
unremunerative  rate.  In  so  far  as  it  is  possible  to  provide, 
on  a  sound  financial  basis  and  in  large  numbers,  houses  that 
meet  the  requirements  of  those  who  do  not  belong  to  the 
most  poverty-stricken  strata  of  society,  the  pressure  in  the 
congested  districts  may  be  relieved  indirectly,  and  insani- 
tary property  can  be  destroyed  without  the  danger  of 
effecting  more  harm  than  good.  The  management  of 
tenement  and  cottage  property,  the  collection  of  rents,  and 


134  THE  REWARD  OF  SERWCES  [ch. 

the  evicting  of  destructive  and  disreputable  tenants,  is  a 
business  which  cannot  be  done  more  effectively  by  a  public 
department  than  by  private  individuals,  and  there  may  be 
serious  loss,  both  pecuniarj'  and  social,  if  it  is  negligently 
jierformed.  The  fundamental  question  is,  as  to  the  best 
means  of  providing  regularly  and  steadily  for  a  constantly 
increasing  need.  If  there  is  hope  that  this  can  be  ac- 
complished in  the  future,  as  it  has  been  in  the  past,  by 
private  enterprise,  the  municipality  would  be  unwise  in 
taking  over  the  whole  business  of  housing  the  poor.  So 
long  as  any  reliance  is  placed  on  private  enterprise  in  the 
matter,  it  is  probably  wise  for  the  local  authority  to  content 
itself  with  supervising  those  who  undertake  to  meet  this 
requirement,  instead  of  attempting  to  enter  into  occasional 
and  partial  competition. 

(/)  It  is  true  that  the  progress  of  organisation  appears 
to  be  reducing  the  waste  which  arises  incidentally  from 
the  keen  competition  of  rival  traders.  Competition,  as 
has  often  been  noticed,  is  often  liable  to  be  displaced  by 
monopoly  ;  and  there  is  a  very  general  feeling  that,  so  long 
as  a  monopoly  is  allowed  to  remain  in  private  hands,  there  is 
a  danger  that  the  public  interests  may  be  sacrificed  with 
the  view  of  securing  larger  gains  to  the  monopolist.  This 
was  a  veiy  real  danger  under  the  conditions  of  trade  which 
existed  in  England  in  the  seventeenth  century  ;  but  under 
modem  conditions  it  is  quite  likely  that  a  man  who 
has  secured  the  monopoly  of  an  article  of  common  con- 
sumption, as  has  been  the  case  with  the  Standard  Oil 
Company,  will  find  that  he  can  use  his  monopoly  to  the 
greatest  advantage  by  catering  in  the  best  way  possible  for 
the  wants  of  the  public,  so  as  to  attract  the  largest  possible 
amount  of  custom.  A  monopolist  who  finds  that  his  profit 
lies  in  serving  the  public  well,  may  be  trusted  to  use  his 
great  powers  for  the  public  interest  as  well  as  in  his  own. 
Further,  it  may  be  remembered  that  a  great  monopolist  is 
never  irresponsible  ;   he  is  exposed  to  the  most  searching 


II.]         MONOPOLY  AND  THE  PUBLIC  INTEREST         13.0 

criticism  from  jealous  eyes ;  every  indiscretion  in  his 
private  life,  and  any  harshness  in  the  conduct  of  hLs 
business,  is  likely  to  be  reported  far  and  wide,  and  to  be 
made  the  occasion  of  agitation  against  him.  The  power  of 
the  State  to  regulate  the  monopolists  who  carry  on  the 
traffic  between  different  parts  of  the  country,  or  to  regulate 
industrial  monopolists  by  means  of  factory  inspection,  is 
very  great.  It  is  important  tliat  these  powers  should  be 
strengthened,  and  rendered  more  popular  with  those 
concerned,  by  prohibiting  the  introduction  of  aiticles  into 
this  country  which  are  produced  under  conditions  that 
would  be  prohibited  here.  There  are  practical  means  of 
insisting  that  the  public  interests  shall  not  be  neglected  by 
the  private  monopolist. 

It  appears  at  first  sight  that  a  State  monopoly  is  certain 
to  be  exercised  entirely  in  the  public  interest — that  since 
it  is  owned  by  the  people,  it  is  sure  to  be  worked  in  such  a 
way  as  to  benefit  the  people.  But  this  is  not  necessarily 
the  case,  especially  as  there  are  different  sections  of  the 
public.  A  part  of  the  tramway  system  may  be  laid  down 
and  run  at  a  loss  ;  where  this  occurs,  a  portion  of  the 
travelling  public  obtain  a  benefit  at  the  expense  of  the 
ratepayers  generally.  The  population  benefited  may  be 
a  very  deserving  section  of  the  community  ;  but  it  is  not 
obvious  that  this  subsidy  is  given  in  the  interest  of  the 
ratepayers  generally.  There  are  numerous  w^ays,  where 
municipal  management  comes  in,  by  which  the  general 
interest  may  be  sacrificed  to  the  advantage  of  some  one 
district.  This  is  much  less  likely  to  occur  where  the  whole 
area  is  catered  for  by  private  enterprise. 

The  manner  in  which  customers  are  treated  is  apt  to  be 
rather  different  under  State  and  under  private  manage- 
ment. When  a  monopoly  passes  into  public  management, 
persons  who  are  conscious  that  they  are  government 
employes  are  not  always  so  mindful  as  they  might  be  of  the 
fact  that  they  are  the  servants  of  the  public.     The  postal 


136  THE  REWARD  OF  SERVICES  [en. 

service  and  the  railway  service  may  be  contrasted  in  this 
respect :  there  are  not  infrequent  complaints  of  the 
manner  in  which  post-office  clerks  continue  their  private 
conversation  Avhile  some  member  of  the  public  is  waiting 
to  have  a  telegram  transmitted  ;  there  is  rarely  occasion 
for  similar  complaints  at  railway  booking-offices.  Further, 
when  anything  goes  wrong,  if  luggage  is  lost,  the  railway 
companies  take  extraordinary  pains  to  find  it,  and  if  they 
fail,  it  is  possible  to  obtain  redress.  The  post-office  appears 
to  content  itself  with  acknowledging  a  letter  of  complaint, 
and  promising  to  inquire  how  the  mistake  has  arisen,  but 
never  holds  out  any  hope  of  redress.  It  is  not  clear  that 
in  these  minor  matters  the  public  interests  are  better 
attended  to  by  public  than  by  private  monopolists.  So 
long  as  the  conduct  of  an  enterprise  is  in  private  hands,  the 
weight  of  authority  is  brought  to  bear  in  the  interests  of 
the  public  and  to  obtain  redress ;  when  the  conduct  of 
an  entei-prise  is  in  the  hands  of  municipal  or  other  public 
bodies,  authority  is  more  likely  to  be  used  to  conceal 
abuses  and  to  evade  criticism,  even  when  the  aggrieved 
party  goes  so  far  as  to  have  a  question  asked  in  the  House 
of  Commons. 

This  is  the  real  danger  in  regard  to  municipal  enterprise, 
and  the  conduct  of  any  kind  of  business  as  a  State  monopoly. 
The  administration  of  such  a  business  is  necessarily  carried 
on  in  such  a  fashion  that  there  are  many  opportunities  for 
corruption,  both  on  the  part  of  the  members  of  Town 
Councils  who  control  the  business,  and  on  the  part  of  the 
officials  who  administer  it.  English  public  life  has  attained 
a  high  degree  of  purity,  while  reliance  has  been  placed  on 
private  enterprise  ;  but  even  under  existing  conditions  it  is 
not  carried  on  by  men  who  are  incapable  of  yielding  to 
temptation.  Instances  occasionally  occur  where  it  is 
difficult  for  the  sanitary  officers  to  condemn  property  that 
is  a  discredit  to  the  owner,  because  the  owner  is  on  the 
Town  Council  and  can  use  his  influence  to  ensure  silence 


II.]  THE  SERVICES  OF  LANDOWNERS  137 

and  so  continue  to  draw  an  income  ;  or  wlicre  a  speculative 
builder  is  able  to  transfer  to  the  ratepayers  the  obligation 
of  making  up  the  roads  that  lead  to  cottage  property  he 
has  built  ;  or  where  guardians  can  vote  outdoor  relief  to 
their  own  tenants,  and  thus  have  good  security  for  the 
payment  of  their  rents.  It  does  not  need  much  imaginative 
power  to  depict  how  far  municipal  corruption  might  go,  if 
the  opportunities  of  pursuing  personal  advantage  at  public 
expense  were  more  frequent,  and  less  scrupulous  men  were 
attracted  to  enter  public  life,  with  a  view  to  the  chances  of 
making  it  profitable. 

4.  The  Return  from  Land 

(a)  The  services  which  landowners  have  rendered  to  the 
community  have  differed  very  much  from  time  to  time. 
In  English  society,  at  the  era  of  the  Norman  Conquest,  they 
had  the  burden  of  different  political  responsibilities ; 
much  of  the  land  was  held  in  return  for  the  obligation  of 
rendering  miUtary  service  and  of  furnishing  men  for  the 
defence  of  the  realm.  The  traditional  obligation  to  assist 
in  the  maintenance  of  roads  and  bridges  which  were 
necessary  for  military  purposes,  was  not  forgotten.  Further, 
the  landowners  were  responsible  for  payments  of  various 
kinds,  and  that  they  acted  as  the  agents  by  whom  contribu- 
tions were  made  on  special  occasions  to  the  royal  revenue. 
Each  manor  was  rated  as  a  unit,  from  which  a  known 
payment  could  be  obtained,  when  Danegeld  was  levied. 
In  Tudor  times,  when  the  feudal  organisation  of  society 
was  ceasing  to  be  effective,  we  find  that  the  landed  gentry 
served  as  the  agents  for  many  administrative  puiposes. 
The  Lords  Lieutenant  were  responsible  for  putting  down 
disorder;  and  the  Justices  of  the  Peace  were  not  only  con- 
cerned in  punishing  offences  of  many  kinds,  but  in  assessing 
the  prices  of  the  necessaries  of  life,  and  the  rates  of  wages,  as 
well  as  in  making  provision  for  the  unemployed.     Great 


138  THE  REWARD  OF  SERVICES  [ch. 

pressure  was  brought  to  bear  in  order  to  insist  that  the 
country  gentry  should  reside  on  their  estates  and  discharge 
these  duties  to  the  State,  rather  than  merely  draw  their 
revenues  and  pay  attendance  at  Court. 

In  modern  times  landlords  have  been  called  upon  to 
discharge  very  important  economic  duties  in  the  develop- 
ment of  their  estates.  The  effective  supervision  of  labour 
and  the  directing  of  industry,  so  that  food  might  be 
obtained  and  that  the  soil  should  be  as  little  as  possible 
exhausted,  had  doubtless  been  the  practice  from  time 
immemorial ;  but  in  the  Elizabethan  age  very  little  capital 
had  been  sunk  in  the  land  ;  a  great  part  of  England  was 
unfenced,  the  buildings,  including  the  mills,  were  of  a  very 
simple  and  inexpensive  character,  and  very  little  had  been 
done  in  the  way  of  agricultural  draining,  though  some 
considerable  attempts  had  been  made  to  preserve  land 
from  inundation  by  the  sea  or  by  rivers.  From  that  time 
onwards,  but  more  especially  in  the  eighteenth  and  nine- 
teenth centuries,  landowners  have  sunk  large  amounts  of 
capital  in  the  improvement  of  the  soil.  The  estate  belong- 
ing to  the  Bedford  family  at  Thorney  in  Cambridgeshire 
has  been  an  extraordinary  example  of  the  improvements 
that  have  been  effected  by  the  wise  expenditure  of  capital 
on  the  land,  while  the  history  of  that  estate  shows  con- 
clusively how  little  the  inherent  qualities  of  the  land  have 
to  do  with  the  value  of  English  soil  for  arable  purposes.  It 
has  been  at  enormous  expense  that  the  land  has  been 
brought  into  and  maintained  in  a  fit  condition  for  high 
cultivation.  The  return  which  goes  to  the  landlord  may 
be  partly  considered  as  of  the  nature  of  salary  for  the 
military  and  administrative  services  which  have  been 
incidental  to  their  position.  In  the  modern  organisation 
of  the  State,  these  services  are  not  nearly  so  important  as 
was  formerly  the  case,  though  it  would  be  a  great  mistake 
to  ignore  them.  But  the  main  elements  for  which  rent  is 
charged  are  fiscal  and  economic.     The  landlord  is  respon- 


II.]  THE  VARIOUS  USES  OF  LAND  139 

sible  for  the  payment  of  very  heavy  taxation,  and  the 
demand  for  lent  may  be  regarded  as  an  attempt  to  obtain 
the  repayment  of  some  of  this  money  by  the  ocfupicrs  of 
the  land.  The  main  element,  however,  is  a  return  on  the 
capital  which  has  been  invested  in  the  land,  and  wlu(;h  has 
been  necessary  to  render  it  fit  for  its  present  use. 

{b)  There  are  many  different  uses  to  which  land  may  be 
put :  it  may  be  employed  as  pasture  land,  it  may  be  taken 
up  for  arable  purposes,  or  it  may  be  used  for  building  sites  ; 
and  it  lies  with  the  landlord  to  decide  to  which  use  he  will 
try  to  put  his  land.  In  nine  cases  out  of  ten  he  will 
be  very  much  influenced  by  economic  considerations,  and 
by  the  nature  of  the  cfTers  he  gets  for  the  land.  If  the 
public  desire  to  use  his  land  for  building  sites,  it  will  bring 
him  a  much  larger  income  than  if  they  are  merely  competing 
for  the  right  to  use  it  as  agricultural  land,  or  as  unimproved 
pasture  ;  so  that  economic  considerations,  and  the  desiie 
of  the  greatest  reward,  will,  on  the  whole,  determine  him 
to  use  his  land  in  the  way  which  is  most  advantageous  to 
the  public  ;  but  this  is  not  necessarily  the  case.  In  the 
sixteenth  century  the  rent  which  was  to  be  obtained  from 
sheep-runs  was  very  large,  and  there  was  a  danger  that 
opportunities  for  using  land  for  tillage  would  be  so  greatly 
reduced  as  to  cause  a  public  danger,  both  from  the  diminu- 
tion of  the  available  supply  of  corn,  and  from  the  decline 
of  the  rural  population.  Various  statutes  were  passed  to 
secure  the  public  interest  from  being  undermined  by  land- 
lords who  were  pursuing  their  private  gain.^  It  is  also 
conceivable  that  a  landowner,  from  some  personal  caprice, 
may  prefer  to  devote  his  land  to  a  purpose  which  is  un- 
remunerative  to  him,  when  he  could  obtain  a  large  income 
by  allowing  it  to  be  used  in  the  manner  that  would  best  meet 
the  public  requirements.  There  are  always  likely  to  be  a 
certain  number  of  people  in  any  community  who  are 
merely  wrong-headed  ;  but,  on  the  whole,  the  private 
1  Oroiath  of  English  Indudry  in  Early  and  Middle  Ayes,  p.  529. 


140  THE  REWARD  OF  SERVICES  Tea 

interest  of  the  landlord  and  the  service  of  the  public  have 
alike  pointed  out  some  particular  use  to  which  any  par- 
ticular piece  of  land  ought  to  be  adapted. 

The  amount  of  capital  required  for  developing  land  for 
different  purposes  varies  very  largely.  The  expenditure 
on  rough  pasture  is  obviously  very  small ;  the  cost  per 
acre  of  the  necessary  buildings,  roads,  and  fences  for  arable 
cultivation  is  large  ;  while  a  very  great  deal  has  to  be  done 
in  the  way  of  laying  out  roads  and  in  providing  sewerage 
if  an  estate  is  to  be  broken  up  into  building  lots.  The 
proper  development  of  land  for  this  purpose  is  a  matter  of 
great  expense,  and  the  results  may  be  very  uncertain.  If 
landlords  are  occasionally  arbitrary,  towns  are  sometimes 
extraordinarily  capricious  in  their  habit  of  growth.  The 
town  of  Birkenhead  was  a  conspicuous  example  of  failure 
to  realise  the  expectations  that  were  entertained  of  its 
development  at  the  time  when  the  docks  were  constructed 
and  the  park  laid  out ;  while  in  other  cases  the  character 
of  a  suburb  changes  suddenly,  and  residential  property 
falls  enormously  in  value  or  has  to  be  let  as  tenements. 
In  the  face  of  these  difficulties,  it  may  often  happen  that  a 
man  who  has  land,  wiiich  might  be  available  for  building 
purposes,  has  neither  the  enterprise  nor  the  capital  which 
is  necessary  to  adapt  it  to  this  use.  If  he  has  the  means 
of  doing  so,  he  will  reap  a  much  larger  return  than  he 
can  ever  hope  to  get  from  mere  agricultural  land.  The 
arbitrary  withholding  of  land  from  its  most  remunerative 
use  is  not  probably  very  frequent.  Under  the  system  of 
private  ownership,  with  occasional  compulsory  purchase 
for  special  objects,  the  uses  to  which  the  land  of  England 
has  been  put  have  been  modified  from  time  to  time  ;  but 
the  economic  service  of  the  public  has  been  the  most  im- 
portant determining  factor. 

(c)  The  reward  which  accrues  to  the  landlord  for  his 
services  differs  from  that  of  the  labourer  and  of  the 
capitalist  in  the  mode  in  which  it  is  paid.     It  is  a  residuaiy 


II.]  RESIDUARY  PAYMENTS  141 

payment ;  the  labourer  obtains  his  wages  week  by  week, 
the  farmers  compete  with  one  another  for  the  use  of  land, 
and  probably  render  it  difficult  for  any  of  them  to  make 
such  a  bargain  that  he  obtains  more  than  the  ordinary  rate 
of  profit.  What  the  landlord  can  count  upon  receiving  is 
the  sum  that  remains  after  the  ordinary  expense  of  labour 
and  the  ordinary  returns  on  the  tenants'  capital  have  been 
defrayed. 

The  broad  differences  in  rent  are  determined  by  the 
different  uses  to  which  land  is  put ;  but  all  farms  are  not 
let  at  the  same  rent  per  acre,  nor  can  all  building  plots  be 
disposed  of  by  the  mere  consideration  of  their  area.  Tlie 
reason  why  some  land  pays  much  and  some  little,  though 
they  are  employed  for  the  same  use,  is  that  some  land  is 
better  adapted  than  other  land  for  the  particular  use  in 
question.  There  is  practically  one  market  for  cereals  and 
farm  produce  generally  throughout  the  whole  of  England, 
as  all  prices  are  dominated  by  the  rates  quoted  from 
London.  If  land  is  badly  situated,  and  the  produce  can 
only  be  brought  to  the  market  at  great  expense,  the  residual 
payment,  which  goes  to  the  landlord,  will  be  small ;  simi- 
larly, there  must  be  a  large  proportional  outlay  on  the  crop 
which  is  raised  from  very  poor  soil,  and  therefore  the 
residual  payment  will  also  be  small  in  this  case.  But 
where  land  is  both  well  situated  and  fertile,  the  expense  is 
comparatively  small  in  proportion  to  the  value  of  the  crops, 
and  the  residual  payment  will  be  very  large.  For  each  use 
of  land  there  is  a  rate  of  return  which  suffices  to  pay  the 
wages  of  labour  at  the  ordinary  standard  of  comfort,  and 
to  replace  the  capital  of  the  tenant  at  the  ordinary  rate  of 
profit,  as  well  as  to  defray  the  share  of  taxation  and  the 
profit  on  the  outlay  necessary  to  fit  the  land  for  the  agri- 
cultural use.  Unless  it  can  yield  this  return,  the  land  is  not 
remuneratively  employed  in  tliis  particular  use.  All  land 
that  is  better,  either  because  of  the  character  of  the  soil,  or 
the  exposure,  or  the  convenience  for  market,  will  produce 


142  THE  REWARD  OF  SERVICES  [ch, 

crops  at  a  lower  rate  of  expense,  and  the  residual  payment 
which  goes  to  the  landlord  will  be  proportionately  larger. 
The  competition  of  farmers  with  farmers  tends  to  keep 
the  rate  of  tenants'  profits  at  a  level ;  when  a  farmer  has 
a  lease  he  may  make  exceptional  profits  for  a  time,  if 
there  is  a  series  of  good  years,  but  he  may  be  unable  to 
carry  out  the  terms  of  his  agreement  with  his  landlord  if 
seasons  are  bad,  or  the  range  of  prices  is  unexpectedly 
low. 

The  partnership  between  landlord  and  tenant  is  so 
close  that  the  effect  of  bad  times  will  soon  be  felt  by  the 
landlord.  He  may  be  forced  to  make  remissions  of  rent 
in  order  to  retain  a  good  tenant ;  and  as  the  farms  become 
vacant,  the  competition  of  landlords  with  landlords,  in  order 
to  secure  competent  and  substantial  tenants  who  will  do 
justice  to  the  land,  may  bring  about  a  considerable  reduc- 
tion of  rents.  When  such  a  loss  occurs,  the  landlord  has  no 
means  of  recouping  himself  ;  he  cannot  raise  prices,  which 
are  determined  in  open  market ;  he  cannot  bring  any 
pressure  on  either  the  labourer  or  the  tenant  to  be  satisfied 
with  a  lower  standard  of  comfort  or  a  lower  rate  of  profit ; 
all  that  he  can  hope  to  do  is  either  to  manage  the  land 
himself,  or  to  try  to  render  a  farm  more  attractive  to  tenants 
by  sinkmg  additional  money  in  buildings  and  improve- 
ments. If  he  regards  both  those  courses  as  hkely  to  result 
in  loss,  he  may  be  forced  to  try  to  adapt  the  land  to  some 
other  use — to  let  it  go  out  of  cultivation  and  make  the  most 
he  can  of  pasturage,  of  shooting  rights,  or  from  its  ad- 
vantages as  a  golf  course.  When  the  land  is  thus  diverted 
from  the  use  for  which  it  has  been  prepared  at  great  cost, 
there  is  a  sacrifice,  not  only  of  the  income,  but  of  much  of 
the  capital  which  was  employed  in  fitting  it  for  its  former 
use,  and  which  may  be  of  no  real  advantage  for  the  new 
use.  During  the  last  lliirty  years  of  agricultural  depres- 
sion, the  ultimate  loss  has  fallen  entirely  upon  the  landed 
class,  although  a  generation  of  labourers  and  of  tenants 


II.]        INCREMENT  IN  PROGRESSIVE  COUNTRIES        143 

each  felt  the  pressure  of  the  transition  ;  as  land  ceased  to 
be  remunerative  and  went  out  of  cultivation,  there  was  less 
employment  for  rural  labourers,  and  many  of  them  have 
drifted  to  the  towns  and  have  not  prospered  there.  Many 
tenant  farmers  have  been  ruined  in  the  struggle  to  carry  on 
a  declining  industiy,  but  at  the  present  day  the  standard  of 
comfort  of  the  rural  labourer  is  higher  than  it  was  thirty 
years  ago  ;  the  tenant  who  understands  his  business  is 
able  to  make  a  fair  profit,  but  the  residual  payment  to  the 
landlords  has  sunk  to  so  great  a  degree  that  it  may  be 
estimated  that  this  class  has  been  subjected  to  a  loss  in 
capital  value  of  from  eight  hundred  to  one  thousand 
millions.  In  regard  to  any  declining  area  or  declining 
country,  the  ultimate  loss  has  to  be  borne  by  the  landlords 
as  a  class. 

{d)  There  is,  however,  another  side  to  this  picture.  In  a 
progressive  country  where  land  is  in  increasing  demand  for 
uses  of  every  sort,  or  in  districts  where  land  is  in  increasing 
demand  for  some  particular  use,  the  residual  payment  to 
the  landowners  is  likely  to  increase  constantly  and  steadily. 
With  an  increasing  population,  the  value  of  all  the  land  of  an 
isolated  country  would  almost  necessarily  increase  ;  there 
would  tend  to  be  an  increased  demand  for  house  room,  and 
for  food  and  clothing,  the  materials  of  which  are  furnished 
from  the  land  ;  and  there  would  tend  to  be  keener  com- 
petition among  labourers  and  capitalists,  so  that  neither 
the  standard  of  life  nor  the  rate  of  profit  is  likely  to  rise. 
The  residual  payment  would  therefore  go  to  the  landowning 
class,  and  the  rate  of  reward  would  bear  no  direct  relation 
to  the  economic  services  which  they  might  have  rendered. 
In  this  way  there  arises  what  is  commonly  called  the  un- 
earned increment  from  land ;  it  is  not  an  increment  which  is 
due  to  any  special  graspingness  on  the  part  of  landlords ;  it 
is  not  obtained  at  the  expense  of  other  capitalists  or  of 
labourers  ;  and  it  is  not  the  cause  (but  an  effect)  of  high 
prices  paid  by  consumers ;  and  thus  it  does  not  diminish 


144  THE  REWARD  OF  SERVICES  [ch. 

the  i^^igour  of  any  of  the  factors  in  economic  Ufe.^  The 
transference  of  all  landed  property  to  the  State  would  not, 
under  these  circumstances,  make  any  difference,  so  far  as 
agricultural  activity  goes,  as  tliis  increment  would,  in  the 
supposed  circumstances,  be  forthcoming.  In  an  old  and 
populous  country  there  may  be  a  check  to  the  further 
development  of  business,  through  the  high  price  which  has 
to  be  paid  for  land;  and  the  difficulty  which  manufacturers 
have  in  competing  in  neutral  markets  with  manufacturers 
in  a  new  country  may  press  heavily  ;  but  the  burden 
cannot  be  removed  by  any  social  rearrangement. 

The  term  unearned  is,  however,  somewhat  misleading  ; 
the  landowners  have  sunk  their  capital  in  adapting  the  land 
to  its  various  uses,  and  by  their  foresight  in  fitting  the 
land  for  its  present  purpose  have  earned  a  right  to  partici- 
pate, at  all  events,  in  the  gain  which  accrues.  The  cause 
of  popular  complaint  is  not,  strictly  speaking,  that  the 
increment  is  altogether  unearned,  but  that  the  enterprise 
of  the  landlord  in  a  progressive  country  is,  in  the  long 
run,  remunerated  at  a  higher  rate  than  the  enterprise  of 
other  capitalists.  The  peculiarity  of  the  position  of  the 
landlord  is  that,  having  a  stake  in  the  country,  he  and  his 
family  share,  as  other  classes  do  not,  in  the  increasing  wealth 
or  in  the  increasing  loss  of  the  community.  In  a  declining 
country  the  loss  falls  most  heavily  on  this  class,  and  in  a 
prosperous  country  the  permanent  gain  ultimately  goes  to 
the  lando^vners,  who  continue  to  obtain  residuary  pay- 
ments on  a  larger  and  larger  scale.  The  recent  history  of 
England  has  afforded  numerous  illustrations  of  both 
tendencies  :  agriculture  has  declined,  owing  to  the  cheap 
transport  from  the  Western  States,  and  the  flooding  the 
English  markets  with  American  wheat.  On  the  other 
hand,  the  increase  of  population  and  the  rapid  growth  of 

I  A  comparison  of  the  conditions  in  India,  where  payments  made  to  the 
State  as  landlord  encronch  on  the  inofit  of  the  tenant,  and  the  unearned 
increment  in  private  hands  is  negligible,  is  very  instructive. — M.  G.  Ranade, 
Indian  Economics,  p.  31. 


ir.]      APPIIOPRIATION  OF  EXCEPTIONAL  REW  .VRI)     145 

many  towns  have  enabled  the  owners  of  urban  land  to 
obtain  greatly  increased  rents,  as  building  leases  fall  in. 
tSome  large  lando^vners  have  been  enabled  to  hold  their  own 
through  the  agricultural  crisis,  and  to  go  on  making  im- 
provements in  their  rural  estates,  because  of  the  income 
they  derived  from  town  or  suburban  projierty.  The 
Bedford  property,  which  has  been  an  example  of  un- 
rcmunerated  agricultural  enterprise  in  the  Fens,  also 
affords  an  example  of  the  immense  wealth  which  may  be 
derived  from  landed  property  in  such  a  great  centre  of 
population  as  Bloomsbury. 

(e)  The  large  and  steadily  increasing  gains  which  go  to 
particular  persons,  through  the  accident  of  their  inheriting 
property  in  districts  where  the  population  is  growing,  have 
struck  the  popular  imagination.  The  favoured  children  of 
fortune  may  have  done  little  or  nothing  themselves  towards 
the  development  of  the  property.  It  is  not  necessary  for 
them,  as  it  is  for  most  men,  to  display  any  energy  or  enter- 
prise themselves  in  order  to  prosper,  since  their  wealth 
comes,  partly  through  the  enterprise  of  ancestors,  and  partly 
through  the  progress  of  the  community,  in  which  they  have 
such  a  large  stake.  Hence  there  is  a  widespread  feeling 
that  this  exceptional  gain  should  be  treated  in  an  excep- 
tional way.  It  is  admitted  that,  from  its  nature,  rent  is  not 
exacted  at  the  expense  of  capitalists,  or  labourers,  or  the 
consumers,  but  arises  incidentally,  and  that  it  does  not  arise 
from  personal  exertion  of  any  kind  on  the  part  of  many 
landowners.  Hence  it  appears  that  what  they  enjoy 
should  really  go  to  society  at  large.  They  may  be  said  to 
have  a  '  pull '  over  the  public  ;  an  increment  goes  on 
accruing  to  them,  from  century  to  centuiy,  as  land  in  good 
situations  rises  in  value.  It  seems  to  many  people  that  the 
appropriating  of  future  increments  to  the  State  would 
involve  no  loss  to  individuals,  and  that  it  could  be  carried 
out  without  any  shock  to  property. 

A  practical  diflSculty  may  be  mentioned   in  passing : 

K 


146  THE  REWARD  OF  SERVICES  [ca 

it  is  very  difficult  to  assess,  in  regard  to  any  property, 
what  the  precise  value  is,  unless  the  property  comes  into 
the  market  and  a  price  can  be  quoted  as  one  that  was  taken 
or  refused.  Where  this  does  not  occur,  the  actual  value  of 
the  property  is  a  mere  matter  of  guess-Avork  ;  but  even  if 
this  problem  can  be  satisfactorily  settled,  there  can  be 
no  certainty  in  deciding  on  the  causes  of  any  increase. 
When  the  landlord  has  recently  introduced  improvements, 
there  must  be  difficulty  in  saying  what  proportion  of  gain 
is  to  be  reckoned  as  profit  on  the  landlord's  investment  of 
capital,  and  what  is  due  to  the  general  progress  of  society. 
This  again  is  mere  guess-work,  and  if  the  guesses  are  wrong 
the  result  will  be  that  the  State  lays  a  claim,  not  merely  to 
the  sum  which  has  arisen  incidentally,  but  to  profit  which 
is  the  legitimate  reward  of  the  landlord's  enterprise,  and 
so  mulcts  him  unfairly. 

Any  suggestion  for  levelling  down,  and  reducing  the 
wealth  of  the  very  rich,  is  to  many  minds  plausible,  as  it 
tends  to  remove  the  great  inequalities  in  society.  But  the 
more  important  point  to  consider  is  whether  the  appropria- 
tion by  the  State  of  future  increment  would  be  really 
beneficial  to  the  community.  How  would  the  change 
affect  the  vigour  of  national  economic  life  ?  It  is  to  be 
noticed,  in  the  first  place,  that  the  wealth  diverted  from  the 
landlords  to  the  coffers  of  the  State  would  not  necessarily 
be  emploj'ed  so  as  to  serve  the  public  better  than  if  it  had 
been  left  in  private  hands.  ^  In  so  far  as  it  was  employed 
as  capital,  it  might  be  used  to  some  extent  to  promote 
certain  sectional  interests,  and  there  is  a  danger  that  it 
would  open  up  opportunities  for  administrative  corruption  ; 
public  expenditure  does  not  necessarily  bring  about  benefit 
to  the  public  as  a  whole.  If  a  serious  attempt  were  made 
to  distribute  the  benefit  throughout  all  classes,  this  could 
be  best  done  by  a  remission  of  taxation  ;  but  the  sums 
which  would  thus  reach  the  pockets  of  the  people,  through 
»  See  above,  p,  135. 


II.]     APPROPRIATION  OF  EXCEPTIONAL  REWARD     147 

the  reduced  demands  of  the  tax  collector,  would  not 
necessarily  fructify,  or  give  rise  to  much  increased  saving  of 
capital.  On  the  other  hand,  it  is  probably  true  that  a  very 
large  part  of  the  increment,  which  goes  to  rich  men,  is 
employed  by  them  as  capital ;  their  pride  and  interest  may 
alike  lead  them  to  improve  their  property  with  the  means 
at  their  disposal.  Those  who  are  not  only  urban  but 
rural  landlords  have  thus  the  means  in  their  hands  of 
improving  their  country  estates,  and  making  them  more 
fit  for  agricultural  production.  It  is  difficult  to  see  that 
there  would  be  any  direct  benefit  to  the  community  as  a 
whole  if  this  appropriation  took  place. 

It  is,  moreover,  highly  probable  that  there  would  be  a 
serious  injury  to  enterprise  in  catering  for  the  needs  of  the 
public.  Large  windfalls  and  great  gains  appeal  to  the 
imagination  ;  they  may  rouse  jealousy  among  those  who 
have  no  capital,  but  they  also  make  a  most  effective  appeal 
to  many  capitalists  to  enter  on  undertakings  from  which 
indefinite  future  gain  maj'-  be  anticipated.  Adam  Smith 
noticed  that  the  great  prizes  in  certain  professions  rendered 
them  very  attractive,^  and  that  men  were  influenced  in  the 
choice  of  a  profession,  not  by  the  average  earnings,  but  by 
the  prospects  of  obtaining  high  position.  If  this  is  so  in  a 
man's  choice  of  a  calling,  it  is  still  more  strikingly  the  case  in 
regard  to  the  use  of  his  wealth.  The  prospect  of  making 
large  gains  calls  forth  a  great  deal  of  enterprise.  The 
success  of  those  who  promoted  the  New  River  Company  in 
the  time  of  James  i.,  and  the  large  price  which  shares 
attained,  must  have  had  a  considerable  effect  in  inducing 
capitalists,  all  over  the  country,  to  initiate  schemes  for 
improving  a  local  water  supply.  This  need  would  not  have 
been  so  readily  met  at  great  expense  by  private  enterprise, 
if  the  prospect  of  gain  had  not  had  all  the  attraction  of 
indefiniteness,  and  thus  appealed  to  the  investors'  imagina- 
tion. From  the  nature  of  the  case  it  is  impossible  to  say 
1  Wealth  of  Natums,  Bk.  i.  cliap.  xi. 


148  THE  REWARD  OF  SERVICES  [ch. 

how  far  this  has  operated,  or  to  what  precise  extent  the 
stimulus  to  private  enterprise  to  make  local  improvements 
would  be  affected.  But  we  are  not  at  liberty  to  assume 
that  it  would  be  unaffected,  and  that  private  enterprise 
could  be  counted  upon  to  continue  to  show  itself  as  effective 
in  carrying  out  far-reaching  plans  in  the  service  of  the  public. 
Levelling  doAvn  is  plausible,  but  it  is  not  likely  to  be  really 
beneficial. 

5.  Drastic  Remedies 

{a)  According  to  the  tendencies  which  are  at  work  in  the 
present  day,  there  seems  to  be  a  prospect  that  organisation 
will  become  more  vvidespread  and  more  complete,  so  that 
the  waste  from  competition  may  be  minimised.  In  some 
cases  these  organisations,  in  so  far  as  they  are  likely  to 
disregard  the  public  interest  on  any  pomt,  can  be  con- 
trolled and  directed  by  the  authority  of  the  State,  while  the 
direct  organisation  of  industry  by  the  State  may  be  able 
to  supersede  private  enterprise,  in  those  cases  where  any 
public  requirement  can  be  best  served  by  a  department  of 
Government.  To  many  minds,  however,  these  processes 
seem  to  be  slow  ;  the  incidental  mischiefs,  which  arise  in 
connection  with  existing  conditions,  appear  to  be  very 
grave,  and  men  are  inclined  to  insist  that  the  economic 
life  of  the  country  should  be  submitted  to  some  more 
drastic  treatment.  The  failure  to  remove  the  misery  and 
evil  caused  by  extreme  poverty  is  taken  as  demonstrating 
the  defectiveness  of  a  system  of  social  organisation,  which 
permits  so  much  suffering  on  the  one  side,  and  on  the  other 
gives  the  opportunity  for  the  accumulation  of  such  large 
fortunes  ;  the  poor  remain  poor,  while  the  wealthy  are  more 
obtrusively  and  more  offensively  rich.  They  urge  that  the 
whole  character  of  society  ought  to  be  completely  changed, 
in  the  hope  of  securing  less  inequitable  results. 

Many  people  argue  that  something  of  this  sort  is  neces- 
sary in  order  to  avoid  the  terrible  waste  in  modern  society. 


II.]         APPROPRIATION  OF  CAPITAL  AND  LAND         149 

There  is,  for  example,  the  luxurious  expenditure,  either 
personal  or  national,  which  is  less  beneficial  to  the  com- 
munity in  the  long  run  than  the  production  of  goods  which 
are  capable  of  being  used  as  capital  would  be  ;  this  is  a 
negative  waste.  In  it  may  be  included  the  reservation  of 
large  parks  for  private  enjoyment,  or  any  other  instances  of 
the  diversion  of  land  fioin  tliC  use  that  is  most  beneficial  to 
the  community.  Besides  this,  and  even  more  regrettable, 
is  the  waste  of  human  ability.  There  are  men  of  foi'ce  of 
character,  intellectual  power  and  artistic  taste,  who  never 
get  a  chance  to  show  what  is  in  them  ;  while  others,  wlio 
could  not  be  regarded  from  any  possible  standpoint  as 
better  men,  enjoy  positions  of  responsibility  and  trust.  It 
seems  as  if  the  State  would  be  more  efficiently  served  if 
there  were  entire  equality  of  opportunity,  so  that  the 
best  men,  M-ithout  respect  to  the  accidents  of  birth, 
might  be  able  to  show  what  is  in  them  and  so  come  to  the 
front. 

With  this  object  in  view,  it  is  proposed  to  do  away  with 
all  private  property  in  land  and  the  other  requisites  of 
production.  The  State  would  become  the  sole  landowner 
and  the  sole  capitalist,  receiving  the  profit  on  capital  and 
the  return  and  increment  from  land.  The  services  which 
have  hitherto  been  rendered  by  capitalists  and  landowners 
would  be  performed  instead  by  salaried  officials,  who  would 
employ  the  land  of  the  country  for  those  uses  which  were 
most  beneficial  to  the  public,  and  guide  the  enterprise  of 
the  community  into  the  best  directions. 

(b)  Such  a  proposal  implies  a  veritable  revolution,  and 
the  entire  abandonment  of  the  principle  which  characterises 
economic  life  at  present.  That  is  the  principle  of  calling 
forth  and  directing  private  interests  so  that  they  may 
co-operate  for  public  good.  The  function  of  the  State  is 
mainly  that  of  guaranteeing  the  reward  obtainable  by 
private  persons  who  compete  with  other  private  persons, 
and  of  putting  down  that  which  is  proved  to  be  injurious. 


150  THE  REWARD  OF  SERVICES  [cH. 

The  initiative  in  economic  matters  at  present  rests  with  the 
individual.  If  the  proposed  revolution  were  carried  out, 
there  would  be  a  positive  scheme,  authoritatively  devised, 
of  what  was  best  for  all.  The  initiative  in  giving  eSect  to 
this  scheme  would  rest  with  the  State.  The  remuneration 
to  be  assigned  to  each  individual  would  be  determined  by 
the  official  estimate  of  his  needs,  if  the  principle  of  reward 
were  set  aside,  absolutely  and  entirely  ;  or  at  any  rate  the 
principle  of  reward  for  individual  excellence  would  only 
enter  as  a  subordinate  consideration  in  the  fixing  of  salaries. 
There  would  be  no  appeal  to  private  interest,  and  no  effort 
to  stimulate  it  by  the  offer  of  special  reward.  In  this  way 
a  practical  equality  might  be  maintained  ;  but  it  is  not 
clear  that  State  initiative  and  collective  wisdom  would 
serve  the  community  more  efficiently  than  private  enter- 
prise does  at  present.  The  time  has  long  gone  by  since  any 
attempt  of  the  sort  was  made  in  this  country,  but  enormous 
pains  were  taken  by  the  Privy  Council,  during  the  reigns  of 
Elizabeth  and  the  first  two  Stuarts,  to  organise  every  detail 
of  industrial  life,  apprenticeship,  wages,  food  supply, 
quality  of  goods,  foreign  commerce,  and  the  introduction  of 
improvements  in  agriculture  and  manufacturing  on  national 
lines.  ^  Immense  pains  were  taken,  but  the  system  gave 
rise  to  much  criticism  and  was  very  unpopular.  It  may 
be  said  that  the  means  of  ascertaining  the  actual  economic 
condition  of  the  country,  and  of  enforcing  the  decisions  of 
government,  are  much  more  perfect  than  they  were  in  the 
sixteenth  and  seventeenth  centuries.  To  a  great  extent 
this  is  true,  but  it  is  also  true  that  the  economic  organisa- 
tion of  society  is  much  more  delicate,  and  less  susceptible 
of  government  regulation  in  all  its  details.  The  develop- 
ment of  national  resources  is,  to  a  very  large  extent,  a 
matter  of  local  knowledge,  and  the  attempt  to  concentrate 
all  the  projects  for  local  improvement  in  one  centralised 

»  Growth  of  English  Industry  and  Commerce  in  Modern  Times,  pp.  26,  37, 
46,  92,  285. 


II. J  EFFECTS  ON  ENERGY  AND  ENTERPRISE         V,\ 

department  would  not  be  likely  to  result  in  an  increase  of 
initiative,  or  a  more  prudent  consideration  of  local  con- 
ditions. We  can  to  some  extent  appeal  to  experience 
in  this  matter ;  public  authority  proved  incompetent  to 
carry  out  a  much  desired  improvement  in  the  condition 
of  the  Fens  during  the  fourteenth,  fifteenth,  and  sixteenth 
centuries.  Repeated  efforts  were  made,  but  without 
success.  The  work  of  draining  the  great  level  of  the  Fens 
was  only  accomphshed  in  the  seventeenth  century  when 
private  enterprise  was  empowered,  and  encouraged  by  the 
State,  to  get  to  work.  Immensely  more  skill  and  organising 
power  is  now  at  the  disposal  of  the  central  authority,  but  it 
is  not  clear  that  an  effective  desire  for  public  good  is  so 
strong  that  all  reliance  on  the  motive  force  of  the  hope  of 
private  reward  can  be  safely  abandoned. 

(c)  Under  the  proposed  scheme  the  most  effective  motives 
to  energy  and  enterprise  of  every  kind  would  cease  to 
operate  ;  the  rewards  which  have  attracted  men  most 
strongly  have  not  been  merely  pecuniary,  but  rather  social. 
In  many  cases  the  pecuniary  reward  has  been  valued 
chiefly  because  of  the  incidental  social  advantages  which  it 
opened  up.  In  a  society  where  constant  efforts  were  made 
both  to  level  down  and  also  to  level  up,  so  as  to  maintain 
approximate  equality,  there  could  be  little  distinction  of 
class,  and  therefore  no  hope  of  rising  in  the  world.  WTiole- 
some  ambitions  of  many  sorts  would  cease  to  operate  ; 
there  would  be  no  ladder  by  which  a  man  could  rise, 
because  there  would  be  nothing  to  rise  to.  Further,  there 
would  be  little,  if  any,  opportunity  for  a  man  to  cherish 
an  ambition  for  his  children,  and  to  tiy  to  give  them  a 
better  start  in  life  than  he  had  himself ;  or  in  any  other 
way  to  improve  the  social  status  to  which  they  could  aspire. 
All  such  efforts  would  be  inconsistent  with  equality  of 
opportunity.  But  the  effort  to  maintain  a  position,  and 
to  improve  it,  has  been  the  efTicient  cause  which  has  called 
forth  both  energy  and  enterprise  in  the  past.     It  is  difficult 


152  THE  REWARD  OF  SERVICES  [ch. 

to  imagine  that  any  corresponding  factor  could  be  brought 
into  play  in  the  future. 

After  all,  the  actual  work,  manual  and  administrative, 
must  be  done  by  individuals.  If  their  energies  are  not  left 
free  play,  but  are  guided  authoritatively,  there  must  be 
discipline  and  compulsion  ;  this  has  never  yet  proved  the 
best  means  of  getting  the  most  out  of  men  for  the  public 
good.^  It  might  perha^DS  be  hoped  that  the  enthusiasm  for 
maintaining  and  carrying  on  a  state  of  society,  in  which 
equality  was  approximately  maintained,  would  inspire  men 
to  do  their  best  under  the  new  order  ;  but  though  little 
experience  directly  bearing  on  the  point  can  be  quoted,  it  is 
at  least  doubtful  whether  the  population  generally  would 
be  more  contented  under  the  new  regime,  or  would  be 
at  all  ready  to  make  sacrifices  of  time  and  energy  to 
maintain  it.  Condemnation  to  the  routine  of  steady  work, 
for  no  personal  reward,  and  with  no  hope  of  improved  condi- 
tions, might  have  a  very  depressing  effect.  At  the  present 
time,  discontent  is  not  entirely  and  wholly  due  to  mere 
jealousy  of  others,  who  seem  to  be  more  fortunate  than 
ourselves.  Restrictions  of  any  kind  may  rouse  resentment ; 
if  a  man  or  woman  wants  to  live  his  own  life,  and  be  free 
to  develop  and  express  his  own  personality,  the  routine 
imposed  by  society  may  be  as  galling  as  the  routine  im- 
posed by  a  master.  The  worst  result  of  the  agricultural 
revolution  in  the  reign  of  George  ni.  was  that  it  deprived 
the  peasant  of  any  hope  of  rising  personally  to  an  improved 
position  in  his  calling.  The  desire  for  personal  freedom  of 
movement,  and  the  demand  for  freedom  to  use  their  energies 
for  their  own  advantage,  seem  to  have  been  the  reasons 
why  villeinage  was  felt  to  be  a  grievance,  and  the  peasants 
revolted  in  1381.  A  dead  level  of  existence,  when  there  is 
no  hope  of  improvement  or  change,  is  not  luilikely  to  make 
most  men  listless,  and  to  render  some  others  reckless. 
Neither  one  frame  of  mind  nor  the  other  is  conducive  to 

1  See  above,  p.  82. 


n.]  UNIVERSAL  BROTHERHOOD  163 

regular  and  energetic  work.  Those  wlio  were  selected  for 
administrative  positions  might  have  a  difficult  task  in 
obtaining  such  energetic  labour  that  the  wants  of  the 
community  were  well  served  in  the  present,  while  it  is  diffi- 
cult to  see  in  what  way  they  would  have  any  means  at 
their  disposal  for  making  provision  for  improvement  in  the 
future. 

(d)  From  the  point  of  view  of  the  maintenance  of  a 
healthy  and  vigorous  economic  life,^  it  does  not  appear  that 
the  new  order  would  compare  favourably  with  the  old  ;  it 
may  be  thought,  however,  that  some  sacrifice  of  material 
prosperity  would  be  worth  while  if  a  better  social  life  were 
secured.  So  far  as  social  life  depends  on  opportunities  for 
leisure  and  culture,  it  is  unlikely  that  these  would  be 
increased,  or  would  be  more  generally  available,  if  material 
prosperity  were  in  any  way  to  decline.  Some  cherish  a 
hope,  however,  that  the  tone  and  spirit  of  society  would  be 
greatly  changed,  that  the  irritation  and  jealousy  Avhich 
arise  through  individual  competition  would  be  allayed,  that 
selfishness  of  every  kind  would  be  exorcised,  and  that  a 
fraternal  spirit  would  take  its  place.  If  such  a  change  of 
character  would  be  sure  to  follow,  it  would  be  worth  while 
to  make  any  sacrifice  of  more  material  wealth  in  order  to 
purchase  it ;  but  the  expectation  is  quite  illusory.  Racial 
differences  are  too  deep  seated  to  be  readily  merged  in  a 
sense  of  universal  brotherhood.  Strong  affections  for  those 
who  are  near  and  dear  may  be  enlarged  so  as  to  embrace 
a  wide  circle  ;  but  the  sentiment  of  universal  brotherhood 
is  vague.  There  would  be  no  real  fraternal  spirit  in  the 
society,  and  it  could  not  impress  that  spirit  on  its  members. 
A  scheme  which  looks  mainly  at  the  maintenance  of 
equality,  and  the  levelling  do%\Ti  of  rewards,  is  not  really 
altruistic  ;  it  demands  sacrifices  from  others,  but  it  makes 
no  demand  for  self-sacrifice.  It  is,  after  all,  an  appeal  to 
the  self-interest  of  the  masses  of  the  people.    A  fraternal 

»  See  above,  p.  81. 


154  THE  REWARD  OF  SERVICES  [ch. 

spirit  cannot  be  propagated  among  its  members  by  a  society 
that  is  merely  held  together  for  the  promotion  of  interests. 
The  co-operative  movement  was  started  under  the  influence 
of  high  humanitarian  enthusiasms,  but  it  has  not  been 
successful  in  educating  the  members  generally  into  a 
disregard  of  their  personal  advantage  and  an  absorption  in 
the  common  good.  There  would  be  no  necessary  immunity 
from  the  same  defects  in  a  reconstituted  society  ;  and 
imder  the  new  order  there  might  be  much  jealousy  of  those 
who  were  selected  to  fill  administrative  positions,  and 
doubts  might  arise  both  as  to  their  wisdom  and  their  zeal. 
The  social  revolution  would  let  loose  destructive  forces, 
but  there  is  little  ground  for  hoping  that  it  would  show 
reconstructive  power.  At  best  it  might  be  successful  in 
reconstituting  a  society  in  which  no  one  could  be  rich,  but 
there  is  little  reason  to  believe  that  a  system  which  came 
into  being  under  such  auspices  would  render  men  either 
contented  or  unselfish. 


111.]  EMPIRICAL  KNOWLELGE  166 


CHAPTER   III 

HALF   TRUTHS 

1.  The  Problems  of  Life 

(a)  The  survey  of  national  economic  life  in  which  we  have 
been  engaged  may  at  least  have  served  to  bring  out  the  fact 
that  social  problems  are  extraordinarily  complex.  They 
are  really  questions  as  to  the  maintenance  of  a  healthy 
national  life,  and  it  is  still  more  difficult  to  prescribe  aright 
for  the  body  politic  than  for  the  human  body.  If  we  are 
thinking  out  the  conditions  of  a  healthy  man's  hfe,  questions 
of  diet  and  air,  of  clothing  and  exercise,  have  all  to  be 
considered,  and  the  reaction  of  the  mind  on  the  body 
cannot  be  ignored.  When  there  is  need  to  diagnose  any 
case  of  disease,  there  may  be  much  difficulty  in  seeing 
what  has  caused  it,  and  how  it  has  to  be  treated — whether 
surgical  treatment  is  needed,  or  whether  an  improvement 
in  general  health  will  enable  the  patient  to  throw  ofif  the 
mischief.  Something  similar  is  true  of  the  body  politic  ; 
if  healthy  progress  is  to  be  maintained  in  society,  a  great 
number  of  different  factors  must  be  called  into  play,  and 
it  is  important  that  none  of  these  should  be  overlooked. 
We  must  also  try  to  recognise  how  much  the  various 
forces  at  work  differ  in  character  :  some  lie  outside  the 
direct  control  of  any  human  agency  ;  some  can  be  exercised 
by  human  beings  acting  collectively  as  a  State,  while  others 
can  only  be  brought  into  play  by  individuals  personally. 
All  this  must  be  boi ne  in  mind  if  we  are  ever  to  state  any 
problems  of  social  life  correctly,  and  in  order  that  we  may 


156  HALF  TRUTHS  Fch. 

begin  to  know  where  to  look  for  a  possible  solution.  But 
this  process  is  tedious,  and  often  seems  to  be  unnecessarily 
roundabout.  The  evils  lie  on  the  surface,  and  obvious 
remedies  appear  to  be  ready  to  hand.  It  seems  simple 
enough  to  meet  the  evil  of  unemployment  by  organising 
relief  works,  and  we  can  thus  avoid  the  trouble  of  consider- 
ing whether  the  difficulty  is  accidental,  or  whether  it  is  a 
symptom  of  some  grave  distemper  in  our  national  life. 
Alleviations  may  only  aggravate  the  disease.  Thei-e  is 
always  a  danger  of  being  satisfied  with  noting  proximate 
causes,  instead  of  inquiring  into  the  potent  influences 
which  lie  in  the  background  ;  we  may  also  be  too  easily 
contented  with  considering  immediate  effects,  without 
looking  ahead  to  try  to  estimate  ulterior  results.  Pro- 
minent features  and  dominating  forces  attract  our  notice, 
and  we  are  apt  to  concentrate  attention  on  particular 
points,  and  to  exaggerate  their  importance. 

Such  partial  and  one-sided  treatment  appears  to  be 
simple  and  direct,  but  it  is  apt  to  result  in  mistaken 
diagnosis  and  to  lead  us  to  rely  on  inadequate  remedies. 
There  is  sometimes  a  temptation  to  exaggerate  the  powers 
of  the  State,  for  good  or  for  evil ;  and,  on  other  occasions, 
we  may  neglect  the  limits  within  which  individuals  are  free 
in  existing  society  to  determine  on  taking  independent 
action  for  themselves.^  These  are  obvious  dangers,  but 
there  is  no  simple  means  of  securing  complete  immunity 
from  them.  It  is  only  possible  to  bear  them  constantly  in 
mind,  and  to  be  consciously  on  the  watch  against  them. 

Under  these  circumstances,  there  need  be  little  surprise 
that  so  much  current  discussion  of  social  problems  is  con- 
fused and  confusing.  Partial  views  of  all  sorts  contain  an 
element  of  truth  ;  the  error  begins  in  neglecting  the  limits 
within  which  each  opinion  is  true  ;  but  enthusiasts  resent 
the  suggestion  that  any  limitations  exist.  If  the  enthusiast 
for  a  simple  diet  recognises  that  milk  is  a  perfect  food  for 

1  See  above,  p.  117. 


III.]  EMPIRICAL  KNOWLEDGE  157 

babies,  he  is  likely  to  reject  all  strong  meat ;  if  he  regards 
alcohol  as  a  poison,  he  will  never  use  it  even  to  save  his  life. 
The  enthusiast  for  social  reform  is  apt  to  indulge  in  similar 
generalisations  ;  he  is  apt  to  insist  that  what  is  ever  true 
anywhere  must  always  be  true ;  and  that  what  holds  good, 
within  narrow  limits  of  place  and  time,  may  be  counted  upon 
to  hold  good  everywhere.  In  the  purely  physical  sphere 
this  principle  of  the  uniformity  of  nature  is  one  we 
habitually  take  for  granted,  and  there  seems  to  be  no  good 
reason  for  not  applying  it  in  economic  and  social  matters  as 
well.  In  dealing  with  social  problems,  however,  we  are  not 
concerned  with  man  by  himself,  nor  with  physical  nature 
by  itself,  but  with  a  social  life  that  arises  through  man's 
struggle  with  his  environment.  In  the  moral  sphere  there 
is  absolute  right  laid  down  as  true  for  all  time,  but  it 
cannot  always  be  applied  offhand  in  all  the  changing 
conditions  of  place  and  time  ;  nor  is  man's  economic 
position  to  be  directly  deduced  from  the  physical  order. 
Social  life  carmot  be  healthy  if  morality  is  set  aside  and 
physical  prosperity  is  ignored  ;  but  neither  morality  nor 
physical  science  can,  in  themselves  and  alone,  say  a  final 
word  upon  any  of  the  issues.  The  relations  between  man 
and  his  environment  are  constantly  changing,  as  man's 
knowledge  of  nature  and  power  over  nature,  and  ability  to 
adapt  himself  to  his  environment,  increase.  Hence  all  the 
principles  which  we  lay  down  with  regard  to  social  matters 
are  only  '  true  so  far  as  they  go,'  and  within  limits.  They 
are  true,  but  they  are  only  half  truths ;  and  a  truth  which  is 
half  a  truth  may  become  the  blackest  of  lies,  because  the 
untruth  in  it  is  so  difficult  to  detect  and  to  refute.  It 
cannot  be  met  by  a  direct  denial,  but  only  by  a  demand  for 
modification  and  correction.  The  admission  that  there  is 
an  element  of  truth  appears  to  give  confirmation  to  the 
broad  statement ;  while  the  demand  for  modification  and 
correction  may  be  discounted  as  mere  pedantry.  On  this 
account  the  enthus'ast,   who  maintains  a  half-truth  in 


168  HALF  TRUTHS  [ch. 

popular  discussion  on  these  subjects,  occupies  a  position  of 
considerable  advantage. 

(6)  The  best  available  means  for  guarding  against  the 
danger  of  generalising  from  a  few  instances  is  to  be  careful 
to  keep  as  closely  as  possible  in  touch  with  actual  ex- 
perience, and  to  hesitate  about  relying  on  any  principle 
which  is  merely  deduced  from  indirect  reasoning  and  is  not 
confirmed  by  actual  experience.  In  the  life  of  the  com- 
munity, various  forces — physical,  collective,  and  personal — 
are  at  work,  co-operating  with  or  limiting  and  checking 
each  other.  The  factors  which  have  been  effectively 
operating  over  long  periods  of  history,  or  throughout  wide- 
spread regions  in  the  present  day,  are  likely  to  be  of  more 
relative  importance  than  conditions  which  are  local  and 
temporary.  The  consideration  of  long  periods  of  the  past 
may  help  us  to  distinguish  between  temporary  and  ultimate 
results,  and  thus  to  form  a  sounder  judgment  in  regard  to 
the  probable  results  of  any  course  of  conduct  in  the  present. 
History  never  repeats  itself  exactly,  and  it  cannot  enable 
us  to  foresee  the  future  with  accuracy.  It  does  not  give  us 
a  basis  from  which  we  can  argue  with  demonstrable  cer- 
tainty in  regard  to  a  new  case  ;  but  it  does  offer  results 
whicla  are,  at  least,  useful  hjrpotheses,  to  be  confirmed  or 
rejected  by  fresh  trial.  Besides  this,  the  study  of  the  ex- 
perience of  the  past  furnishes  means  of  criticism  as  well  as 
suggestions  ;  it  gives  scope  for  the  exercise  of  insight,  and 
may  be  highly  instructive  with  regard  to  social  problems 
in  the  present.  The  educational  value  of  economic  science 
as  a  training  of  the  mind  is  greatly  due  to  the  admirable 
assistance  which  the  Classical  School  furnished,  by  their 
precise  definitions  and  clear  statement  of  their  assumptions, 
to  the  absorption  and  co-ordination  of  new  observations. 
There  has  been  a  tendency  in  recent  times  to  adopt  a 
system  of  analysis  which  is  quite  different  from  that  of 
Adam  Smith.  Jevons  and  his  school  treat  Utility,  rather 
than  Exchange- Value,  as  the  fundamental  conception  of 


in.]  HASTY  GENERALISATION  159 

Economic  Science.^  This  treatment  is  apt  to  be  one-sided, 
as  it  lays  undue  stress  on  consumption  and  enjoyment,- 
rather  than  on  developing  the  activities  of  economic  life. 
Ingenious  as  this  system  is,  it  brings  the  subjective"'  side 
into  undue  prominence,  and  fails  to  provide  convenient  in- 
struments for  dealing  with  the  ordinary  phenomena  and 
conditions  of  actual  life.  By  analysing  the  mechanical 
play  of  internal  motive,  we  do  not  get  a  truer  view  of  society 
than  by  considering  the  mechanical  play  of  external  forces  ; 
we  only  habituate  ourselves  to  less  appropriate  conceptions 
for  grouping  the  observed  facts  of  life.  Refinements  of 
theory  may  be  pretty  playthings  ;  but  the  advance  of 
knowledge  can  only  come  through  the  statement  of  hypo- 
theses in  a  form  in  which  they  may  serve  to  co-ordinate  or 
be  corrected  by  actual  experience.  This  may  help  us  to  see 
the  various  phenomena  of  society  in  right  proportions,  and 
may  furnish  useful  suggestions  and  weighty  criticisms  with 
regard  to  proposals  for  the  future. 

(c)  The  study  of  actual  experience  is  necessary  in  order 
to  get  at  the  limits  within  which  each  partial  truth  is 
actually  true,  and  therefore  in  order  to  make  an  accurate 
diagnosis,  and  it  is  also  necessary  in  order  to  help  us  to 
judge  how  far  any  proposed  remedy  is  suitable  to  the 
actual  case.  Changes  in  conditions  do  not  produce  the 
same  results  among  all  human  beings  alike.  The  precise 
phase  and  condition  of  human  nature  must  be  considered, 
in  order  that  we  may  forecast  the  use  they  are  likely  to 
make  of  the  opportunities  afforded  by  increased  wealth  or 
leisure,  or  the  manner  in  which  they  are  likely  to  conduct 
themselves  under  more  stringent  compulsion.  The  at- 
tempt to  make  men  moral  by  Act  of  Parliament  may  only 
result  in  bringing  the  law  of  the  land  into  contempt,  by 
demonstrating  its  futility  to  secure  the  expected  results. 

1  '  Back  to  Adam  Smith,'  in  Rise  and  Dedme  of  Free  Trade  Movement, 
p.  205. 
>  Socialism  and  Chris  I  tan  it  i/,  p.  19.  »  Wisdom  of  the  Wise,  p.  19. 


160  HALF  TRUTHS  [ch. 

It  is  of  course  true  that  experience  of  the  past  does  not 
determine  what  is  to  be  hoped  for  in  the  future  ;  to  admit 
this  to  be  the  case  would  be  to  abandon  much  hope  of 
improvement  of  any  kind.  But  while  experience  does  not 
limit  our  expectations  as  to  what  may  be  possible  in  the 
future,  it  does  give  us  most  valuable  guidance  as  to  what 
it  is  best  worth  while  to  attempt  in  the  present.  It  points 
out  the  line  of  least  resistance,  and  the  course  by  which 
improvement  may  be  carried  on  without  giving  rise  to 
violent  opposition.  It  is  important  to  see  what  is  practic- 
able in  existing  conditions — how  far  what  is  old  can  be 
modified  for  the  better,  and  what  forces  are  at  work  to 
prevent  the  introduction  of  something  that  is  new.  Those 
who  neglect  the  thorough  empirical  study  of  social  phe- 
nomena, in  the  present  and  in  the  past,  are  in  danger  of 
giv^ing  their  strength  to  the  advocacy  of  some  remedy  that 
is  inapplicable  in  present  conditions  ;  such  a  prescription, 
if  it  did  not  prove  inoperative  altogether,  might  turn  out 
to  be  mischievous. 

The  fact  that  many  current  principles  are  partially,  but 
only  partially,  true,  is  one  reason  for  the  curious  confusion 
which  is  to  be  found  in  much  discussion  on  social  subjects 
at  the  present  time.  Two  half-truths  do  not  make  a  whole  ; 
and  it  is  possible  to  be  captivated  by  suggestions,  each  of 
which  is  plausible,  but  which  are  really  incompatible. 
Modern  economic  progress  has  given  us  immensely  increased 
power  over  nature,  and  it  came  into  being  as  mediaeval 
conditions  were  swept  away.  Many  of  us  are  inclined  to 
admire  and  boast  of  the  triumphs  of  engineering  skill  and 
the  developments  of  commerce  in  the  present  day,  and  at 
the  same  time  to  pay  a  tribute  of  admiration  to  certain 
features  in  the  life  of  the  past,  Avhen  economic  conditions 
were  different,  when  business  was  less  strenuous  and  habits 
were  simpler.  In  this,  as  in  so  many  matters,  we  cannot 
have  it  both  ways  at  once  ;  there  has  been  loss  as  well  as 
gain  in  the  course  of  progress ;    we  may  set  ourselves  to 


III.]  GROWTH  OF  ECONOMIC  SCIENCE  IGl 

remove  what  is  injurious  in  the  present  day,  but  it  is  a 
waste  of  time  to  attempt  to  do  so  by  merely  reintroducing 
what  has  been  proved  to  be  incompatible  with  modern 
conditions  by  the  very  fact  that  it  has  died  out.  The  real 
test  of  any  invention  is  whether  it  will  work  ;  and  the 
national  life,  in  the  process  of  growth,  discards  what  cannot 
be  assimilated.  Unless  we  habituallj^  realise  that  .social 
problems  are  problems  of  life,  the  results  of  our  study  of 
conditions  and  experience  in  other  times  and  places  will  not 
help  us  in  trying  to  guide  the  developments  of  national  life. 


2.  The  Mechanism  of  Society 

(a)  Those  who  have  devoted  themselves  most  enthusias- 
tically to  the  study  of  social  phenomena  have  not  been  able 
to  keep  this  in  mind  ;  they  have  been  too  much  inclined  to 
look  at  society  as  a  mere  mechanism,  not  as  a  living  growth 
Since  this  method  of  treatment  is  partial,  we  cannot  rely 
on  it  with  confidence,  if  we  wish  to  look  far  ahead  ;  but  it 
is  sound  so  far  as  it  goes,  and  we  cannot  hope  to  understand 
the  working  of  society  in  the  present  in  detail,  unless  we 
have  recourse  to  it.  Every  social  organism  is  a  mechanism, 
though  it  is  not  a  mere  mechanism  :  a  college  crew  is  a 
mechanism,  and  it  is  the  part  of  the  'coach'  to  train  the  men 
to  work  together  in  such  a  fashion  as  to  produce  the  best 
result  mechanically  ;  but  it  is  not  a  mere  mechanism  ; 
such  factors  as  health,  and  nerve,  and  pluck  contribute  to 
the  winning  of  a  race.  The  '  coach  '  must  treat  the  boat 
as  a  mechanism,  for  the  purpose  of  noting  and  correcting 
certain  faults  of  detail  ;  but  he  ought  to  bear  in  mind  that 
it  is  not  a  mere  mechanism,  if  he  is  to  get  the  best  work  out 
of  all  the  men.  For  the  investigation  of  details,  and  the 
accumulation  of  knowledge,  it  is  necessary  to  think  of 
human  society  as  mechanical ;  for  many  purposes  of  study, 
and  for  some  suggestions  of  improvement,  this  point  of 
view  may  serve  ;   but  with  regard  to  all  deep-seated  evils 

L 


162  HALF  TRUTHS  [ch. 

and  far-reaching  changes,  we  must  remember  that  mechani- 
cal readjustments  will  not  suffice,  and  that  the  problem 
must  not  be  merely  viewed  in  its  simplest  form  as 
mechanical,  but  as  a  question  of  health  and  disease  in  the 
life  of  society.  Merely  mechanical  treatment  is  not  really 
adequate. 

The  very  success  with  which  economic  science  has  been 
cultivated  during  the  last  hundred  and  fifty  years  has 
rendered  it  difficult  for  those  who  devote  themselves  to 
this  study  to  recognise  its  limitations,  while  the  public 
have  been  even  less  able  to  exercise  a  discriminatiag  judg- 
ment on  its  teaching.     Sir  William  Petty  and  the  other 
seventeenth-century  writers,  who  tried  to  apply  methods 
which  were  successful  in  physical  science  to  the  investiga- 
tion of  social  problems,  were  anxious  to  get  means  of  correct 
measurement  of  national  progress,  and  with  this  object  they 
paid  attention  to  the  balance  of  trade  as  a  sort  of  mechanical 
test  which  indicated  whether  the  country  was  progressing 
or  not.     The  great  advance  which  was  brought  about  by 
Adam  Smith  was  due  to  the  fact  that  he  made  it  possible 
to  carry  the  mechanical  conception  much  further,  and  to 
give  much  more  accurate  treatment  of  the  progress  of 
society,  by  deliberately  confining  his  attention  to  a  limited 
sphere.     He  carefully  left  political  considerations  in  the 
background,  though  he  never  overlooked  them  and  did 
not   underrate   their   importance ;  he  defined  his  subject 
as  the  causes  of  the  wealth  of  nations,  without  professing 
to  treat  of  any  other  aspects  of  the  life  of  the  community. 
His  followers  went  further  by  assuming  that  the  wealth 
of  the  nation  was  practically  identical  with  the  aggregate 
of  the  wealth  of  individuals,  and  by  restricting  their  atten- 
tion to  the  conditions  which  were  most  favourable  to  the 
increase  of  individual  wealth.     To  give  free  play  to  the 
individual  desire  of  wealth    was  apparently,  and  at  all 
events  for  a  brief  period,  the  most  effective  way  to  add  to 
the  grand  total  of  wealth  available  in  the  community ;  and 


III.]  POPULAR  MISUNDERSTANDINGS  163 

the  mechanism  of  society  would  operate  most  easily  and 
freely  when  built  on  these  lines.  The  Classical  Economists 
effected  a  decided  advance  by  deliberately  confining  them- 
selves to  the  study  of  society  as  a  mechanism  for  producing 
material  wealth.  This  proved  to  be  a  convenient  method 
for  carrying  on  thorough  investigations  in  regard  to 
industrial,  commercial,  and  financial  affairs.  Much  that 
was  puzzling  and  mysterious  in  the  eighteenth  century  has 
now  been  rendered  explicable  and  clear  ;  the  introduction 
of  accurate  terminology  has  been  an  immense  assistance, 
and  progress  is  being  maintained.  The  isolation  of  certain 
classes  of  phenomena  renders  more  precise  enumeration 
possible  ;  and  the  rise  or  fall  in  the  value  of  the  circulating 
medium  can  now  be  measured  with  such  accuracy  as  to 
help  us  to  see  a  little  way  ahead  into  some  of  the  far- 
reaching  changes  that  are  involved.  The  work  of  those 
who  adopted  the  mechanical  conception  of  society  has  been 
of  the  highest  importance  for  all  time,  as  they  give  us  the 
means  of  co-ordinating  experience  and  of  accumulating 
accurate  knowledge  of  society,  in  so  far  as  it  has  this 
mechanical  character ;  and  it  always  must  have  this  char- 
acter, whatever  else  it  may  be  as  well. 

(b)  The  Classical  Economists  were  filly  aware  of  the  one- 
sided and  partial  character  of  their  treatment,  and  at- 
tempted in  various  ways  to  guard  themselves  against 
misunderstanding.  Some  of  them  endeavoured  to  main- 
tain that  the  view  of  society  as  a  mechanism,  where  each 
man  was  pursuing  his  own  individual  interest,  was  only 
adopted  as  a  convenient  hypothesis  for  purj^oses  of  study, 
and  was  not  intended  to  be  the  basis  of  any  recommenda- 
tion in  regard  to  the  course  which  should  be  adopted. 
Tliey  have  been  very  careful  not  to  exaggerate  the  claims 
of  a  mechanical  science  of  society  to  say  the  last  word  on 
the  problems  of  life ;  and  Professor  Nicholson  closes  his 
masterly  treatise  ^  with  a  reiterated  warning  on  this  point. 

1  Principles  of  Political  Economy,  iii.  427. 


164  HALF  TRUTHS  [ch. 

But  the  British  Journalist  and  the  British  public  have  never 
been  able  to  reconcile  themselves  to  adopt  this  tentative 
and  discriminating  attitude  to  the  teaching  of  economic 
science,  and  to  accept  it  as  true,  but  as  only  true  within 
more  or  less  narrow  limits.  They  have  sometimes  hailed  it 
with  undue  respect,  as  an  authoritative  guide  that  ought  to 
be  followed  blindly,  and  they  sometimes  go  to  the  opposite 
extreme  and  rail  against  it  as  a  mischievous  pedantry. 

It  is  probable  enough  that  the  popular  exponents  of 
economic  science  were  less  careful  in  this  matter  than  the 
great  masters  of  the  Classical  School,  and  that  some  excuse 
was  given  for  the  dislike  of  economic  science  which  found 
expression  in  the  writings  of  Carlyle  and  Dickens.  The 
public  were  inclined  to  suppose  that  economists  advocated 
their  doctrine,  not  merely  as  a  scientific  statement  of  the 
principles  on  which  the  mechanism  of  society  works,  but  as 
a  guide  to  the  national  conduct  of  affairs.  The  misunder- 
standing was  excusable,  from  the  persistent  affectation  of 
the  economists  in  needlessly  using  the  term  '  economic 
law ' ;  ^  this  was  naturally  taken  by  the  vulgar  as  being 
correlative  to  some  economic  duty  ;  and  the  principles, 
which  expressed  the  action  of  self-interested  individuals, 
were  interpreted  and  held  up  to  scorn  as  inculcating 
selfishness.  The  habit,  which  was  popularly  condemned, 
of  isolating  the  consideration  of  purely  selfish  interests, 
and  calculating  what  will  happen  on  this  supposition, 
is  not  degrading ;  any  philanthropist  who  wishes  to 
make  some  project  a  thorough  success  must  adopt  this 
attitude  of  mind  and  try  to  view  his  scheme  from  a  purely 
business  point  of  view.  If  a  clergyman  is  trying  to  start 
a  games  club  for  the  boys  in  his  parish,  whom  he  wishes  to 
encourage  to  play  football  in  winter  and  cricket  in  summer, 
he  is  sure  to  consider  whether  it  can  be  made  to  pay  its 
way  or  not.  Very  lilcely  he  comes  to  the  conclusion  that, 
if  the  preliminary  expenses  were  met,  the  club  could  be  kept 
I  See  my  '  Plea  for  Pure  Theory, '  in  Economic  Review,  ii,  37-41. 


III.]  MISCALCULATION  BY  EXPERTS  165 

going  by  a  payment  of  a  penny  a  week  from  each  member. 
He  is  likely  to  be  w  illing  to  give,  or  to  beg,  money  to  start 
it,  if  he  sees  a  fair  prospect  that  it  can  be  self-supporting. 
But  possibly  the  boys  cojnplain  that  they  cannot  afford 
to  pay  a  penny  a  week  all  the  year  round.  The  clergyman 
sees  that  the  club  cannot  be  kept  up  on  a  business  footing, 
and  tbat  the  self-interest  of  the  boys  is  not  strong  enough 
to  support  it.  He  knows  where  he  stands ;  he  may  think  the 
results  of  fresh  air  and  exercise  are  so  important  that  he 
will  subsidise  the  club,  though  it  is  clear  that  it  will,  under 
these  circumstances,  have  less  vitality  than  if  it  was 
independent  and  could  stand  on  its  own  footing.  He  may 
thinli,  on  tlie  other  hand,  that  the  boys  should  pay  for  their 
own.  amusements,  and  that  there  will  be  no  healthy  esprit 
de  corps  unless  it  is  their  own  affair.  The  isolation  of  the 
business  aspect  enables  him  to  come  to  an  intelligent 
decision  and  to  weigh  the  pros  and  cons  satisfactorily  ;  it 
sets  the  question  in  a  clear  light.  In  exactly  the  same  way, 
there  is  nothing  sordid  or  derogatory  in  examining  national 
problems  in  a  purely  business  aspect,  so  long  as  we  are 
clearly  conscious  that  it  is  only  an  inquiry  that  is  prelimin- 
ary to  the  decision,  and  that  the  national  decision  should  be 
taken  with  reference  to  wider  considerations  as  well. 

(c)  The  doctrine  of  Economic  Science  is  true  and  im- 
portant, but  only  true  within  certain  limits  and  conditions, 
and  even  the  greatest  of  the  economists  have  not  always 
been  able  to  bear  in  mind  how  narrow  is  the  sphere,  both 
in  place  and  time,  within  which  the  most  carefully  stated 
doctrine  is  really  to  be  relied  upon  with  confidence,  as  true 
to  actual  life.  Conditions  are  constantly  changing,  both 
in  regard  to  commercial  facilities  and  industrial  processes, 
as  McU  as  in  regard  to  the  character  and  ambitions  and 
adaptability  of  human  beings.  WTiat  we  assume  to-day, 
in  regard  to  physical  conditions  or  human  agents,  is  always 
becoming  out  of  date  ;  the  economist  can  only  safeguard 
himself,   in   his   forecast   of   the  probable  effects  of  any 


166  HALF  TRUTHS  [ca 

proposed  changes,  by  the  frequent  proviso  that  he  assumes 
that  other  things  are  unclianged.  The  economist  cannot 
forecast  what  tends  to  happen  with  such  certainty  as  the 
astronomer,  or  the  physicist,  or  the  chemist,  or  even  the 
meteorologist.  The  economic  expert  is  always  in  danger 
of  supposing  that  the  conditions  he  assumes  are  more 
permanent  than  is  really  the  case,  and  of  generalising  too 
hastily  from  a  few  instances.  Where  he  fails  to  guard 
against  this  tendency,  and  allows  himself  to  assert  that 
something  must  happen,  he  is  using  language  which  he 
has  no  right  to  employ  ;  all  he  can  say  is  that  the  result  is 
likely  to  happen  if  he  has  taken  account  of  the  conditions 
correctly,  and  if  the  conditions  remain  the  same. 

This  economic  '  must,'  whether  standing  baldly  by  itself, 
or  wrapped  up  in  verbiage  about  inexorable  economic  laws, 
was  responsible  for  much  misunderstanding  and  bitterness 
in  connection  with  economic  legislation  throughout  the 
nineteenth  century.  Those  who  are  contented  to  view 
society  as  a  mechanism  are  not  competent  to  deal  wisely 
with  national  life,  even  in  its  economic  aspects.  There 
have,  again  and  again,  been  most  regrettable  results  from 
the  manner  in  which  economists  assumed  the  permanence 
of  the  conditions  with  which  they  were  familiar,^  The 
economic  pessimism  which  regarded  wages  as  paid  out 
of  a  definite  '  wages  fund '  was  practically  true  during 
some  decades,  say  from  1820-40 ;  but  it  was  a  mistake 
to  treat  it  as  an  iron  law  of  wages,  which  must  hold  good 
under  all  conditions.^  The  opposition  of  employers  to 
the  Factory  Acts  was  stiffened,  both  in  1819  and  in  1844, 
by  economic  doctrine  as  to  the  necessary  effect  of  shortened 
hours  on  trade  and  wages.^  In  Ricardo's  time  there  was  an 
excuse  for  treating  economic  rent  as  increasing  mechanic- 
ally, without  either  thought  or  trouble  on  the  landlord's 

1  Growth  of  English  Industry  and  Commerce  in  Modem  Times,  p.  740. 

a  JMd.,  p.  741. 

•  Ibid.,  p,  776 ;  Hutchins  aad  Ilurrison,  Factory  Legislation,  pp,  27,  88. 


in.]  CHEAP  FOOD  167 

part ;  but  this  doctrine  has  left  an  entirely  unfounded 
impression  of  the  actual  English  landlord  and  the  contribu- 
tion he  is  constantly  making  to  the  maintenance  of  the  land 
in  workable  condition.  Mill  argued  against  attempts  to 
provide  allotments  for  the  poor  as  an  illusory  remedy,^  and 
the  careful  Report  of  Commissioners  -  as  to  the  conditions 
in  which  it  would  and  would  not  prove  useful  was  allowed 
to  drop.  There  has  been  no  subject  of  public  interest  on 
which  the  economic  expert  has  not  laid  down  the  law  as 
to  the  manner  in  which  the  mechanism  of  society  must 
work,  while,  time  after  time,  economic  life  has  demonstrated 
its  ability  to  take  on  new  functions  and  adapt  itself  to  new 
conditions. 

3.  Particular  Aims 

(a)  Since  men  of  trained  intelligence  have  been  unable  to 
make  proper  allowance  for  the  treatment  of  social  problems 
as  if  they  were  merely  mechanical,  there  need  be  no  wonder 
that  practical  men,  who  make  no  pretension  to  be  dis- 
passionate and  scientific,  should  be  inclined,  according  to 
their  temperament  or  upbrmging,  to  fix  on  some  factor  as 
essential  to  the  welfare  of  society,  and  arbitrarily  to  relegate 
everything  else  to  a  subordinate  position,  or  to  neglect  it 
altogether. 

There  can  be  no  doubt  that  an  insufficient  supply  of 
the  ordinary  food  of  the  people  causes  very  great  distress 
in  any  community  :  it  is  natural  to  conclude  that  an 
abundant  supply  of  cheap  food  must  be  the  prime  essential 
for  national  prosperity,  and  that  it  would  be  wise  to 
sacrifice  anything  else  in  order  to  secure  this  boon  for  the 
masses  of  the  people. 

It  is  undoubtedly  true  that  the  food  supply  is  a  matter 
of  supreme  importance  to  the  nation  ;  since  the  Elizabethan 
age,  when  the  economic  life  of  the  country  was  taken  in 

1  Political  Economy  (Ashley),  p.  368. 

'  '  Report  from  Select  Committee  ou  Labouring  Poor,'  in  Reports,  1843,  vii. 


168  HALF  TRUTHS  [ch. 

hand  and  regulated  on  national  lines,  constant  attention 
has  been  given  to  it.  The  poUcy  which  has  been  adopted 
in  one  age  has  not  always  been  found  suitable  for  the 
requirements  of  a  succeeding  period ;  but,  till  the  present 
day,  the  food  supply  has,  generally  speaking,  been  regarded 
as  only  one  element,  and  therefore  as  a  matter  to  be  taken 
into  account  in  connection  with  other  measures  for  the 
welfare  of  the  people,  and  not  by  itself.  Under  Elizabeth, 
there  was  still  a  tendency  on  the  part  of  the  land- 
owners to  divert  land  from  tillage  to  sheep- farming,  owing 
to  the  high  price  which  wool  fetched,  and  there  was  danger 
that  the  home-grown  supply  would  fall  off,  as  arable 
cultivation  did  not  pay  well ;  the  government  aimed,  at 
that  time,  not  at  lowering  the  price  of  com  but  at  improving 
the  profit  of  the  plough,^  by  allowing  the  development  of 
an  internal  corn  trade ; '  while,  at  the  same  time,  machinery 
was  in  operation  for  regulating  wages  according  to  the  price 
of  corn.^  A  century  later,  at  the  time  of  the  Revolution, 
efforts  were  made  to  keep  prices  ranging  high,  so  as  again 
to  stimulate  home  production,  by  giving  facilities  for  export 
to  foreign  markets  ;  arrangements  were  also  made  with  a 
view  of  avoiding  serious  fluctuation  in  the  available  supply, 
and  therefore  in  the  price,  according  as  the  seasons  were 
good  or  bad  ;  a  plentiful  supply  with  stability  of  price,  not 
with  a  low  price,  was  the  aim  of  the  policy  of  the  time. 
Under  the  Com  Bounty  system,  and  with  developing 
opportunities  of  employment,  labourers  seem  to  have 
obtained  wages  which  gave  them  command  over  a  good 
supply  of  the  necessaries  of  life  ;  the  rates  of  pay  were  such 
that  a  high  standard  of  comfort  might  have  been  main- 
tained. From  1770  onwards,  when  England  began  to  rely 
on  imported  corn,  there  was  a  great  deal  of  dispute  as  to  the 
policy  which  it  was  wise  to  adopt ;  considerable  efforts  were 

1  John  Hales.  Discourse  of  Common  Weal,  p.  53. 

2  Growth  of  English  Industry  and  Commerce  in  Modern  Times,  p.  91. 
s  VAd.,  p.  38. 


HI.]  CHEAP  FOOD  169 

made  by  means  of  bounties  to  attract  an  increased  supply 
from  abroad,  but  in  the  last  decade  of  the  eighteenth 
century  the  country  reverted  to  the  policy  of  stimulating 
home  production.  When  the  exceptional  conditions  created 
by  the  Napoleonic  Wars  were  passing  away,  the  Corn  Law 
of  1815  was  carried  ;  it  proved  to  be  a  singularly  inept 
measure,  as  it  prevented  the  introduction  of  supplies  from 
abroad,  while  it  failed  to  give  a  sufficient  stimulus  to 
increased  home  production.  As  general  dissatisfaction 
increased,  the  policy  of  procuring  cheap  food  came  to  be 
consciously  fornmlated,  as  a  desirable  object  for  its  own 
sake,  in  a  way  that  had  never  been  done  before  ;  though  it 
is  worth  notice  that  Cobden  carefully  disclaimed  this  object, 
and  argued  that  the  removal  of  restriction  would  give  a 
larger  supply  at  the  existing  price.  ^  He  knew  that  cheap- 
ness was  not  the  sole  consideration. 

The  policy  of  directing  exclusive  attention  to  the  procur- 
ing of  cheap  food  is  plausible  though  one-sided  ;  but  it 
cannot  be  wise  to  leave  the  future  of  the  food  supply  of 
this  country  entirely  to  chance.  To  past  generations  it 
seemed  prudent,  for  political  reasons,  that  there  should  be 
a  sufficient  food  supply  produced  at  home,  so  that  the  nation 
should  not  be  dependent  on  possible  enemies  for  any  of  the 
necessaries  of  national  existence.  It  is  now  possible  to 
pursue  this  policy  over  a  far  larger  area,  by  giving  encourage- 
ment to  corn-growing  within  the  Empire,  and  by  being  at 
pains  to  provide  such  facilities  of  communication  as  to 
improve  our  access  to  the  large  supplies  which  are  available 
from  countries  attached  to  us  by  the  most  intimate  political 
ties,  and  under  the  authority  of  the  British  Cro%v'n.  It  is 
to  these  undeveloped  areas  that  the  world  must  look  for 
an  increased  supply  of  wheat ;  to  strengthen  our  business 
connections  with  these  areas  is  the  best  way  to  guard  against 
the  danger,  in  the  near  future,  of  a  considerable  rise  in  the 
price  of  food  in  this  country.     If  we  make  no  attempt  to 

*  Rise  and  Decline  uj  Free  Trade  Movenunt,  pp.  60,  176. 


170  HALF  TRUTHS  [ch. 

take  advantage  of  our  present  opportunities  in  order  to 
make  provision  for  the  time  to  come,  we  are  running  a  very 
serious  risk,  and  gambling  with  the  future  not  only  of  the 
country  but  of  the  Empire. 

It  is  of  course  possible  that  the  advantage  of  being  sup- 
plied with  food  in  the  present,  on  the  cheapest  terms,  is  so 
great  that  it  is  worth  while  to  run  any  risks  in  order  to  obtain 
it.  But  at  least  it  is  desirable  that  we  should  scrutinise 
this  boon  closely,  and  see  that  it  confers  a  real  benefit. 
It  is  obvious  that  in  any  given  year  cheap  food  is  a  benefit 
to  the  wage-earners ;  but  it  is  not  certain  that  cheap  food, 
in  and  by  itself,  is  necessarily  a  benefit  to  a  community  in 
the  long  run.  The  population  of  Ireland  subsisted  and 
multiplied  on  a  very  cheap  food  ;  and  philanthropic  effort 
was  strained  in  the  attempt  to  cope  with  the  distress,  when 
the  potato  disease  first  made  its  appearance.  Cheap  food 
is  not  a  benefit,  necessarily  and  invariably  ;  it  may  prove 
positively  mischievous  if  it  provides  means  for  the  existence 
of  a  large  population  in  idleness,  when  they  have  no  sufl&- 
cient  opportunities  of  working,  or  of  bettering  themselves. 
In  any  community  where  there  is  cheap  food,  early  mar- 
riages are  possible  and  a  large  population  can  be  main- 
tained at  a  low  standard  of  comfort ;  but  unless  there  are 
opportunities  of  employment,  and  a  wilUngness  to  accept 
employment,  the  large  population  is  not  likely  to  be  kept  at 
a  high  level  of  physical  condition  or  moral  character.  The 
Elizabethan  and  the  Revolution  policy  took  account  not 
only  of  the  food  supply,  but  also  of  the  opportunities  and 
terms  of  employment.  It  is  only  in  modern  times  that 
cheap  food  has  been  regarded  as  an  essential  of  welfare  that 
ought  to  be  secured,  for  its  own  sake,  and  without  any 
consideration  of  the  opportunities  of  employment  and  the 
terms  on  which  labour  can  be  hired.  All  the  factors  of 
permanent  social  welfare  are  interconnected  ;  it  is  an  en-or 
to  isolate  any  one  as  of  supreme  importance,  in  and  by 
itself  ;  no  single  condition  is  good,  absolutely  and  by  itself. 


III.]  THE  ENGLISH  YEOMANRY  171 

but  only  when  viewed  in  its  bearing  upon  national  life  in 
the  long  run. 

(6)  The  wisdom  of  the  past  may  be  too  Ughtly  discarded  ; 
but,  on  the  other  hand,  a  misleading  glamour  may  be  cast 
over  features  of  social  life  that  we  only  see  from  a  distance. 
Throughout  the  Middle  Ages  and  till  the  eighteenth  century, 
there  were  in  England  a  number  of  small  farmers,  who 
cultivated  the  land  either  for  their  own  subsistence,  or  in 
the  hope  of  disposing  their  produce  in  neighbouring 
markets;  generally  speaking,  they  carried  on  tillage  in 
common  fields  under  the  pressure  of  traditional  custom  and 
not  on  any  scheme  of  their  own  ;  but  they  had  a  measure 
of  independence  as  to  days  and  hours,  and  were  not  directly 
under  any  employer.  These  sturdy,  independent  men  ap- 
peal to  the  imagination,  and  there  is  a  very  general  desire  to 
reintroduce  them  by  providing  small  holdings,  which  can  be 
worked  with  a  small  amount  of  capital.  The  aim  is  not 
merely  to  introduce  an  economic  ladder  by  which  the  man 
of  special  skill  and  diligence  can  climb  into  another  class,^ 
but  to  reintroduce  a  class  who  should  keep  themselves  in 
comfort  by  cultivating  a  small  holding  with  a  small  capital. 

It  is  to  be  remembered  that  the  disappearance  of  the 
yeoman  farmer  was  part  of  a  general  movement  in  the 
organisation  of  employments  of  every  kind.  In  mediieval 
times  much  of  the  industry  of  the  country  was  carried  on  by 
craftsmen  who  had  a  small  amount  of  capital,  and  were  not 
directly  dependent  on  any  employer,  but  made  their  o^\^l 
bargains  as  to  materials  and  as  to  the  disposal  of  the  pro- 
duct. But  as  commercial  connections  developed,  these 
small  capitalists  were  unable  to  hold  their  own.  They  no 
longer  dealt  directly  with  the  consumer,  but  were  obliged 
to  cater  for  distant  markets  through  a  middleman.  For 
centuries  the  contest  went  on,  in  the  cloth  trade,  as  between 
the  merchant  middleman  who  bought  the  goods  from 
domestic  weavers,  and  the  manufacturing  middleman,  who 

1  See  above,  p.  112. 


172  HALF  TRUTHS  [ch. 

employed  workmen  to  weave  for  him,  and  paid  tliem  wages. 
The  superior  convenience  of  the  position  of  the  large 
employer  for  the  organisation  of  business  triumphed  at  last. 
The  introduction  of  expensive  machinery  in  the  textile 
trades  clinched  the  matter  so  far  as  a  large  part  of  the 
industry  of  the  country  is  concerned.  The  small,  independ- 
ent craftsman  has  succumbed,  and  though,  from  an  artistic 
point  of  view,  the  disappearance  of  human  craftsmanship 
before  machinery  is  a  matter  of  regret,  no  serious  effort  is 
being  made  to  roll  back  the  wheels  of  progress  and  re- 
introduce the  small  manufacturer.  It  was  the  march  of 
progress,  and  the  facilities  of  catering  for  human  wants 
at  a  diminished  cost,  which  acted  through  the  '  greed  '  of 
employers,  and  enabled  them  to  oust  the  domestic  weavers. 
Unless  we  go  back  to  the  old  market  conditions,  it  is  not 
really  likely  that  the  old  industrial  classes  could  flourish  ; 
the  atmosphere  of  world-wide  commerce  proved  fatal  to 
them  before.  Would  it  be  possible  for  them  to  flourish  in  it 
now  ?  The  small  capitalist  who  survived  in  the  eighteenth 
century  had  a  bad  reputation  in  regard  to  the  conditions  of 
employment,  and  it  is  to  some  extent  the  small  capitalist 
who  is  the  sweater  of  the  present  day. 

In  much  the  same  way  the  small  holder  of  bygone  days 
farmed  for  subsistence  chiefly,  and  sold  his  surplus  produce 
in  a  local  market.  In  the  seventeenth  and  eighteenth 
centuries  there  was  more  of  a  national  market  for  corn,  and 
there  were  frequent  opportunities  of  selling  it  over  seas. 
Under  these  circumstances,  it  was  profitable  to  concentrate 
attention  on  corn-growing,  and  to  treat  cattle-breeding  as 
subsidiary ;  this  became  a  less  profitable  use  of  land,  and 
the  traditional  farming  of  the  small  holders  ceased  to  be 
remunerative.  As  a  class  they  died  out,  because  they 
were  unfitted  to  survive  in  the  changed  conditions  of 
English  agriculture ;  it  remains  to  be  seen  whether  the 
fall  in  the  price  of  com,  and  improvement  in  the  profit  on 
other  kinds  of  produce,  will  give  them  a  better  chance. 


III.]  THE  ENGLISH  YEOMANRY  173 

In  his  capacity  as  a  labourer,  the  small  holder  may  be 
stimulated  to  work  harder  than  other  labourers,  though  the 
plea  that  this  will  occur  makes  it  probable  that  if  the 
smaller  holder  is  to  be  perpetuated,  he  must  live  a  life  of 
more  continuous  drudgery  than  the  agricultural  labourer 
does  at  present ;  the  stimulus  of  prospective  ownership 
would  be  a  lielp  to  induce  him  to  enter  on  the  arduous 
struggle.  The  most  serious  difficulties  the  small  holder 
would  have  to  face  would  be  those  which  presented  them- 
selves to  him  in  his  capacity  as  a  capitalist ;  he  would  be 
likely  to  have  difficulty  in  standing  a  drop  of  prices,  or  a 
bad  season,  without  getting  seriously  into  arrears. 

Whether  the  reinstatement  on  a  large  scale  of  a  class  of 
small  holders,  raising  produce  for  the  market,  is  practicable 
remains  to  be  seen.  The  difficulty  of  marketing  can  be  got 
over  in  many  cases  where  there  is  easy  access  to  large  centres 
in  which  there  is  a  demand  for  vegetables,  fruit,  and  eggs  ; 
and  men  of  exceptional  ability  will  be  able  to  take  the  best 
advantage  of  their  opportunity  and  to  rise  in  the  world, 
even  if  the  strain  is  great.  But  there  is  reason  to  fear  that 
for  some  of  those  who  enter  on  the  occupation  of  a  small 
tenancy  the  strain  will  be  too  great,  and  that,  if  a  large 
area  were  devoted  to  small  holdings,  it  might  prove  that 
the  land  would  deteriorate  or  become  exhausted,  and  that 
the  men  were  at  last  forced  to  throw  it  up.  This  is  not 
mere  surmise ;  the  description  of  the  remaining  small 
holdings  in  1843,  and  of  recent  experiments  in  reintro- 
ducing them,  is  very  instructive. 

If  it  be  true  that  the  small  capitalist  has  disappeared, 
as  the  practice  of  catering  for  distant  markets  became  more 
common,  we  seem  to  be  forced  to  choose  between  a 
return  to  the  old  commercial  conditions — in  which  the  old 
organisation  of  industiy  flourished — and  the  acceptance  of 
the  new  commercial  conditions  with  the  organisation  of 
industry  which  has  proved  its  suitability  to  these  conditions 
by  coming  into  being  under  them.     It  is  not  clear  that  we 


174  HALF  TRUTHS  [ch. 

can  have  it  both  ways  ;  but  the  sentimentalist  neglects  the 
evidence  as  to  the  trend  of  change  during  the  last  three 
hundred  years,  and  hopes  to  combine  mediaeval  organisa- 
tion of  industry  with  modern  conditions  of  commerce.  It 
has  yet  to  be  proved  that  they  can  be  rendered  compatible, 
and  there  may  be  considerable  loss  in  making  the  attempt. 

(c)  Literary  persons  iu  many  ages  have  interested  them- 
selves in  the  creation  of  Utopias.  In  modem  times  Sir 
Thomas  More  set  an  example,  which  has  been  followed  by 
Bacon,  Harington,  and  others.  There  is  in  many  quarters 
a  feeling  that  if  only  society  were  reorganised  in  a  really 
rational  manner,  which  commended  itself  to  the  judgment 
of  all  human  beings,  they  would  naturally  and  easily 
conform  to  this  social  order,  from  its  inherent  attractive- 
ness to  thinking  men.  This  was,  on  the  whole,  the  doctrine 
of  William  Godwin,  and  it  seemed  to  be  successfully  realised 
for  a  time  in  the  communities  which  were  organised  at 
New  Lanark,  and  in  America,  by  Robert  Owen.  Against 
this  opinion  it  is  not  easy  to  argue  from  experience ;  the 
one  or  two  failures  can  hardly  be  regarded  as  in  themselves 
decisive  against  the  success  of  some  similar  attempts  in  the 
future.  We  cannot  test  the  proposals  by  actual  life,  as  we 
may  the  assumptions  of  the  economist ;  nor  do  the  idealists 
rely  on  isolated  instances  to  prove  the  practicability  of  their 
schemes.  Some  of  them  hope  that  the  society  might  come 
new  bom  into  existence,  and  commend  itself  simply  by  its 
reasonableness. 

The  objection  to  such  schemes  does  not  lie  against  any 
particular  feature  in  any  one,  but  against  the  fundamental 
assumption  which  all  make  as  to  human  natm-e.  They 
assume  that  because  man  is  rational,  he  is  wholly  reasonable ; 
whereas  the  one  plain  fact  of  human  nature  is  that  man 
suffers  from  '  defect  of  will.'  He  knows  what  is  right  and 
good  to  do,  but  he  cannot  brace  himself  to  do  it  all  the 
time,  constantly  and  steadily.  He  has  opportunities  of 
many  kinds,  and  he  fails  to  make  the  most  of  them.     This 


iii.J  UTOPIAS  176 

was  the  fact  that  St.  Paul  deplored  in  his  own  experience, 
'  I  cannot  do  the  things  that  I  would.'  There  was  a  law  in 
his  members  warring  against  the  law  of  his  mind.  This 
human  frailty  he  called  sin  ;  it  filled  him  with  shame  and  re- 
morse ;  he  struggled  heroically,  but  he  could  not  shake  it 
off  altogether.  Those  who  frame  ideals  of  society,  and  trust 
that,  in  the  conditions  they  devise,  every  one  would  be  wise 
and  good,  are  content  to  shut  their  eyes  to  the  existence 
of  sin,  which  suffices  to  spoil  any  earthly  paradise. 

Human  weakness  and  frailty  have  been  the  underlying 
causes  which  have  shattered  many  promising  schemes. 
Idealists  assume  that  by  changing  conditions  you  can 
revolutionise  the  characters  of  men,  but  this  is  not  so  ;  the 
improvement  of  human  character  is  a  difficult  process,  and 
improved  opportunities  do  not  bring  it  about  suddenly  and 
at  once — if,  indeed,  they  bring  it  about  at  all.  There  must 
be  that  which  works  on  the  man  within,  as  well  as  that 
which  improves  conditions  without,  if  there  is  to  be  a  real 
regeneration  of  society  ;  and  life  develops  from  within.  It 
is  possible  to  improve  conditions,  and  provide  opportunities 
by  external  activity ;  but  the  kindling  of  new  ideals,  and 
encouraging  of  men  to  live  up  to  them,  is  another  matter. 
We  have  so  far  tried  to  survey  the  field  in  which  the  State 
can  work  by  guiding  and  organising  human  activities,  and 
we  must  now  turn  to  consider  in  what  way  human  agents 
can  be  rendered  better  men.  Once  again  the  appeal 
must  be  to  experience ;  and  we  claim  that  Christian  ex- 
perience shows  the  most  effective  means  for  taking  men 
out  of  themselves  and  inspiring  them  with  a  new  sense  of 
social  duty. 


178  CHRISTIAN  CHAEACTER  [ch. 


PART   III 
PERSONAL    DUTY 

CHAPTER  I 

CHRISTIAN  CHARACTER 
1.  Self-dedication 

(a)  In  considering  social  and  political  forces,  we  have  been 
concerned  with  factors  which  leave  their  mark  upon  and 
mould  individual  lives  by  pressure  from  without.  A  man's 
whole  personal  life  must  be  extraordinarily  influenced  by 
its  environment,  not  merely  by  the  physical  forces  surround- 
ing him,  but  also  by  the  ideas,  and  conventions,  and  institu- 
tions of  those  among  whom  he  is  born  ;  the  opportunities 
left  to  him  and  the  plans  made  for  him  by  others  help  to 
determine  his  career  and  a£Fect  his  character.  For  the 
most  part,  the  moulding  influence  of  society  on  the  indi- 
vidual is  exercised  by  pressure  of  various  kinds  ;  but  it 
is  not  so  complete  and  far-reaching  as  to  render  every 
individual  completely  adapted  to  his  place  in  society,  and 
satisfied  to  accept  it  cheerfully.  In  civilised  society,  the 
external  rewards  of  status  and  of  fortune,  which  appear 
to  be  within  the  reach  of  any  individual,  may  rouse  his 
ambition  and  stimulate  his  activity,  without  completely 
satisfying  him  ;  there  is  likely  to  be  some  friction  between 
society  and  the  individuals  who  compose  it ;  and  it  has  not 
been  possible  to  secure  a  complete  harmony  of  private 
interests   with  those  of  society,^  or  to  secure  (iomplete 

1  See  above,  p.  53. 


1.]  INFLUENCE  OF  INDIVIDUALS  177 

compliance  on  the  part  of  individuals  with  rational  aims 
and  aspirations  for  the  whole. ^  The  readjustment  of  social 
conditions  can  never  suffice  to  give  such  personal  con- 
tentment as  to  remove  all  causes  of  irritation  and  bitter- 
ness ;  under  any  circumstances  it  will  still  be  necessary 
to  try  to  foster  a  sense  of  personal  duty,  so  that  personal 
initiative  may  be  consciously  directed  to  the  common 
good. 

Social  problems  must  therefore  be  viewed,  not  only  from 
the  side  of  society  and  the  forces  which  it  can  bring  to 
bear,  but  also  from  the  side  of  individuals  and  the  initia- 
tive which  they  possess.  New  ideas  are  not  brought  to 
bear  upon  the  State  directly,  but  through  the  minds  and 
the  activities  of  individuals  to  whom  these  ideas  appeal ; 
for  men,  who  personally  have  high  aims  and  force  of 
character,  can  often  do  something  to  influence  their 
surroundings,  and  modify  society  for  the  better.  It  is 
possible  to  lay  so  much  stress  on  the  impersonal  power 
of  the  State  as  to  underrate  the  power  of  personal  in- 
fluence and  the  importance  of  calling  it  forth,  and  making 
the  most  of  it.^  The  whole  trend  of  thought,  in  recent 
times,  has  been  so  much  in  favour  of  relying  on  State 
regulation  that  it  seems  that  the  worship  of  the  State  may 
exercise  a  baleful  influence  in  the  modem  world  ;  it  rests  on 
a  sentiment  similar  to  that  which  found  expression  in  the 
worship  of  the  Emperor.  There  is  a  danger  lest  personal 
initiative  should  be  repressed,  and  that  the  importance  of 
personal  intelligence  and  character,  both  for  maintaining 
and  for  improving  the  conditions  of  human  welfare,  may  be 
obscured.  We  do  not  habitually  ignore  the  importance  of 
individual  genius  in  particular  aspects  of  the  progress  of 
civilisation  ;  the  personal  influence  of  great  artists,  who 
have  founded  schools,  of  great  writers,  great  thinkers,  and 
great  discoverers  is  recognised  on  every  side  as  epoch- 
making  in  particular  departments  of  culture,  and  important 
1  See  aboTe,  p.  174.  '  See  abore,  p.  150. 

M 


178  CHRISTIAN  CHARACTER  [ch. 

steps  in  social  and  political  progress  in  this  country  can 
also  be  associated  with  particular  names. ^ 

(6)  The  course  of  social  affairs  can  only  run  with  perfect 
smoothness  when  every  man  is  trying  to  do  his  best,  and 
the  best  in  a  man  is  only  called  forth  by  that  which  he 
admires  and  therefore  tries  to  imitate.  It  must  touch  his 
imagination  and  affect  his  will.  Ideas,  which  appeal  to 
the  individual  personally  and  rouse  his  enthusiasm  are 
requisite  if  the  social  mechanism  is  to  work  without  friction  ; 
they  are  essential  if  the  social  life  of  the  community  is  to 
become  fuller  and  more  vigorous. 

Enthusiasms  are  of  many  kinds  ;  for  that  which  attracts 
and  awakes  a  response  in  one  man  may  leave  another,  who 
has  a  different  temperament  or  less  delicate  powers  of  sense 
perception,  wholly  unmoved.  Beauty  exists  in  many  forms 
and  does  not  appeal  to  all  natures  alike  ;  some  are  inspired 
by  beauty  of  sound,  some  by  beauty  of  form,  or  of  colour,  in 
a  picture,  some  by  the  delicacy  of  the  language  in  a  poem, 
and  some  by  artistic  conveyancing.  But  the  love  of  beauty 
in  one  or  other  of  these  forms  may  take  hold  of  a  man  so 
as  to  make  him  feel  that  it  is  the  one  thing  worth  hving  for, 
and  that  nothing  else  really  counts  in  comparison  with  the 
opportunities  of  enjoying  it,  and  of  striving  to  create  it. 
To  the  man  of  artistic  temperament,  the  pressure  of  external 
circumstances  may  often  seem  to  be  an  intolerable  slavery, 
and  he  will  feel  that  calculations  of  prospective  gain  are 
sordid  and  mean.  By  such  natures  the  aims  and  ambitions 
which  are  dominant  forces  in  ordinary  men  can  be  willingly 
and  lightly  sacrificed.     All  enthusiasms  have  this  feature 

1  Edward  I.  had  much  to  do  with  the  organising  of  representative  govern- 
ment, and  with  the  regulating  of  the  conditions  of  industrial  and  agricultiiral 
life  through  the  Middle  Ages.  Lord  Burleigh  built  an  editice  of  national 
economic  policy,  and  the  era  of  the  Revolution  saw  a  new  departure  in  the 
organisation  of  credit,  through  the  carrying  out  of  the  ideas  of  William 
Patterson  and  the  founding  of  the  Hank  of  England.  Personal  influence  has 
been  ef)Och-making  in  the  course  of  social  and  economic  progress  ;  and  it  is 
also  of  enormous  importance  among  the  humbler  ranks  of  society  and  at 
times  when  there  has  been  no  striking  change. 


I.]  ENTHUSIASM  AND  SELF-SACRIFICE  179 

in  coinmon,  that  they  rouse  a  spirit  which  takes  a  man  out 
of  himself  and  renders  him  willing  to  make  sacrifices  ;  the 
enthusiast  will  readily  give  up,  for  the  sake  of  the  cause  he 
has  at  heart,  all  that  he  has,  and  even  life  itself. 

The  forms  of  enthusiasm  to  which  ordinary  men  and 
women  are  most  susceptible  are  not  for  what  is  merely 
physical,  but  for  something  that  has  a  human  interest  as 
well.  This  appears  to  be  the  case  with  the  sense  of  beauty. 
Admiration  for  natural  scenery  is  often  an  acquired  taste  ; 
it  seems  to  be  largely  a  matter  of  the  association  of  ideas  ; 
for,  through  many  ages,  men  of  refined  natures  appear  to 
have  been  curiously  insensitive  to  its  charm.  But  the 
beauty  of  a  human  face  appeals  more  strongly  and  more 
widely  ;  those  who  are,  like  the  miller,  entirely  indififerent 
to  the  beauty  of  such  a  woman  as  Princess  Ozra,  are  com- 
monly regarded  as  exceptionally  dull  and  gross.  The 
delicacy  of  a  human  voice,  and  the  body  of  a  chorus  of 
voices,  awaken  a  response  in  the  minds  of  many  who  are 
quite  unmoved  by  orchestral  and  chamber  music  ;  beauty 
appeals  most  strongly,  and  is  appreciated  most  widely,  when 
it  is  expressed  in  and  through  a  living  personality.  The 
most  widespread  of  human  enthusiasms  is  rendered  more 
attractive  and  intense  when  it  takes  a  personal  character. 

Patriotism  has  also  the  power  of  rousing  high  enthusiasm 
and  calling  forth  great  sacrifice,  though  the  ideal  elements 
it  contains  are  to  a  considerable  extent  impersonal ;  it  may 
stir  men,  \\ho  have  few  personal  ties  with  their  countiy, 
to  fight  and  die  for  it.  The  love  of  country  may  be  partly 
made  up  of  a  delight  in  its  familiar  physical  features,  its 
colouring,  its  air,  and  the  habits  of  life,  and  partly  from  the 
romance  of  its  history  ;  it  is  a  striking  example  of  the  hold 
which  ideas  may  take  on  certain  minds,  Mhile  there  are 
others  who  appear  to  be  destitute  of  any  love  for  their 
country  or  pride  in  it.  But  of  patriotism,  too,  it  may  be 
said  that  it  is  most  inspiring  and  efl'octivo  when  it  can  be 
personified  ;    by  being  associated  with  the  figure  of  some 


180  CHRISTIAN  CHARACTER  [en. 

hero  who  felt  the  keenest  love  for  his  country  and  devoted 
himself  to  her  service,  his  life  calls  forth  admiration  and 
his  example  is  infectious  and  incites  others  to  imitate  him. 

(c)  One  life  stands  out  unique  and  alone  in  the  history  of 
the  world,  both  because  of  the  special  enthusiasm  by  which 
it  was  inspired,  and  the  self-sacrifice  in  which  that  devotion 
found  expression.  Of  our  Lord  Jesus  Christ,  it  was  true 
that  no  merely  eartljily  aim  distracted  Him  from  the  con- 
stant and  single-hearted  desire  to  do  the  will  of  God.  His 
supreme  aim  for  His  own  life  was  that  it  should  be  in 
perfect  conformity  to  the  will  of  God  ;  His  one  ambition 
was  to  give  effect  to  that  will  in  His  words  and  deeds.  His 
life  was  not  inspired  by  a  mere  enthusiasm  for  humanity, 
but  by  a  love  of  the  Eternal  Father,  and  a  desire  that  the 
glory  of  that  Father  should  be  fully  manifested  through 
the  perfecting  of  His  children  upon  earth.  Tlie  life  that 
was  thus  inspired  has  been  the  light  of  men  ;  it  has  revealed 
to  the  world  the  express  image  of  God  ;  countless  men  and 
Avomen,  who  have  looked  at  that  perfect  hfe,  and  that  utter 
self-sacrifice,  have  echoed  the  soldier's  conviction,  '  Truly 
this  was  the  Son  of  God.'  And  the  example  of  His  devotion 
to  God  has  not  only  called  forth  admiration,  it  has  wakened 
the  desire  to  have  a  part  in  it.  '  I,  if  I  be  lifted  up  from 
the  earth,  will  draw  all  men  unto  Me.'  The  thought  of  the 
goodness  of  God,  as  manifested  in  the  person  of  our  Lord 
Jesus  Christ,  has  appealed  to  generations  of  Christian  men, 
as  the  supreme  aim  of  life,  and  as  something  to  which  the 
whole  life  may  be  gladly  consecrated. 

In  the  person  of  our  Lord  Jesus,  the  meaning  of  the 
service  of  God,  and  the  enthusiasm  for  that  service,  were 
alike  set  forth  among  men.  Devotion  to  the  will  of  God 
was  exhibited  by  Him,  in  the  manner  in  which  it  can  appeal 
most  widely  to  men  of  all  races  and  ages,  and  may  influence 
them  most  strongly.  Since  the  Incarnation,  human 
enthusiasm  for  realising  the  Divine  Will  takes  the  form 
of  loyalty  and   devotion  to  the  Divine  Christ,  Who  so- 


1.]  THE  GOSPEL  AS  A  SPIRITUAL  FORCE  181 

Journed  among  men,  Who  ever  lives  to  make  interccission, 
and  Who  strengthens  and  encourages  by  the  gift  of  His 
abiding  Spirit.  The  work  of  the  Church  He  founded  is 
to  apply  to  individual  members  of  countless  succeeding 
generations  the  vitaHsing  power  of  His  life  ;  to  foster  in 
every  member  of  His  Church  something  of  the  devotion  to 
God  which  dwelt  in  Bim.  The  prayer  He  taught  us  to 
pray  is  instinct  with  devotion  to  the  Heavenly  Father,  that 
His  name  may  be  hallowed,  that  His  kingdom  may  come 
and  His  will  be  done. 

(d)  Enthusiasm  of  any  kind  is  an  extraordinary  force  in 
human  affairs,  but  the  life  of  Christ  has  awakened  a  wider 
response,  among  men  personally  and  individually,  than 
any  force  the  world  has  known.  The  fact  that  Christian 
enthusiasm  appeals  to  men  of  all  races  and  all  degrees  of 
civilisation  is  clear  from  the  progress  which  Christianity 
has  made  in  spreading  throughout  the  world.  The  Gospel 
is  being  preached  among  all  peoples ;  and  despite  all 
defects  in  the  mode  of  presentation,  it  finds  an  ever- 
increasing  response.  The  intensity  of  the  enthusiasm  it 
arouses  may  be  measured  by  the  sacrifices  which  have  been 
gladly  made  for  the  sake  of  Christ.  In  the  noble  army  of 
martyrs  there  has  been  a  continued  testimony  to  the  depth 
of  this  devotion. 

Christian  enthusiasm  has  also  a  very  special  quality  of 
its  own,  since  it  does  not  spring  from  earth,  or  anything 
earthly,  but  is  rooted  in  the  love  of  the  God  Who  has  made 
Himself  known  to  man ;  it  is  spiritual,  and  hence  it  is  all- 
embracing  ;  it  does  not  deal  with  one  aspect  of  human 
nature  only,  but  touches  all  human  aspirations  and  concerns 
— not  only  the  inner  life  but  the  outer  world  as  well.  Men  of 
artistic  temperaments  are  inclined  to  lead  their  own  lives 
apart,  and  to  hold  aloof  from  surroundings  that  grate  on 
their  sensibilities  ;  the  streets  where  men  live  are  full  of 
ugly  sights  and  harsh  sounds.  The  ascetic  of  any  creed 
may  seek  to  crush  the  passions  and  desires  after  earthly 


182  CHRISTIAN  CHAKACTER  [CH. 

things  which  perturb  and  harass  the  spirit,  and  interfere 
with  the  attainment  of  complete  philosophic  cahn.  But 
the  Christian  enthusiasm  is  two-sided  :  on  the  one  hand,  to 
be  formed  after  an  ideal,  and,  on  the  other  hand,  to  take 
part  in  Divine  activities.  And  hence  Christianity  has  this 
other  characteristic  which  distinguishes  it  from  so  many  of 
the  ideals  which  men  have  set  before  themselves  :  unlike 
some  other  aspirations,  it  is  so  completely  practical.  It  can 
be  brought  to  bear  upon  all  human  conditions  and  interests  ; 
it  does  not  lie  apart  from  any  of  them  ;  alone  among  the 
great  enthusiasms  that  have  moved  the  world,  it  can  be 
habitually  harnessed  to  the  humble  and  routine  tasks  of 
daity  life. 

Alike  in  the  life  of  the  meanest  slave,  and  in  the  discharge 
of  the  responsibilities  of  the  autocrat  or  the  millionaire, 
there  is  some  room  for  the  play  of  individual  character. 
However  highly  organised  society  may  be,  either  on  the 
lines  of  slave-labour,  of  independent  capitalists,  or  of  giant 
industry,  there  must  be  some  free  play  for  the  individual 
as  to  the  manner  and  spirit  in  which  his  time  is  employed  ; 
and  thus  the  Christian  enthusiasm  may  be  brought  to  bear 
in  any  system  of  society  or  under  any  political  conditions 
by  its  influence  on  the  individual ;  it  is  of  universal  applica- 
bility in  mundane  conditions ;  just  because  it  is  thus  uni- 
versal it  is  capable  of  extension  to  all  races  and  of  being 
maintained  for  all  time.  Herein  the  greatness  of  spiritual 
power  appears,  in  that  it  operates  apart  from  all  the  special 
conditions  of  time  and  place  ;  it  is  capable  of  universal 
extension,  and  it  exhibits  undying  power.  No  mere  humani- 
tarian sentiment  of  brotherhood  ^  can  compare  with 
devotion  to  the  Living  Christ,  either  in  the  range  or  the 
effectiveness  of  the  appeal.  It  is  the  claim  of  Christ's 
gospel  that  it  offers  the  most  effective  means  the  world  has 
ever  seen  for  influencing  men  personally  and  individually, 
by  holding  up  an  ideal  for  all  to  admire  and  to  desire  to 
1  See  above,  p.  153. 


1.1  POSITIVE  GUIDANCE  183 

imitate,  an  ideal  which  is  so  high  that  none  can  attain  to  it 
perfectly,  and  that  yet  lies  so  near  that  all  may  aim  at  it 
in  every  action  of  life. 


2.  Personal  Service 

(a)  The  gospel  of  the  grace  of  God  may  exercise  a  double 
influence  on  any  life  that  is  deliberately  yielded  to  its 
influence  :  on  the  one  hand  it  gives  a  new  motive  for  doing 
duties  of  every  kind,  and  on  the  other  it  throws  fresh  light 
on  certain  kinds  of  conduct.  So  far  as  duties,  which  are 
recognised  in  ordinary  society  and  enforced  by  the  law  of 
the  land,  are  concerned,  Christianity  supplies  an  additional 
motive  for  doing  what  is  right,  not  merely  from  the  fear  of 
man,  but  out  of  a  desire  to  please  God.'  But  there  are 
many  duties  in  regard  to  which  human  institutions  and 
maxims  speak  with  an  uncertain  sound  ;  and  the  nature  of 
the  duty  that  ought  to  be  done  becomes  more  clear  when  it 
is  viewed  from  the  Cliristian  standpoint. 

Ordinary  social  morality  is  concerned  with  external  acts  ; 
it  cannot  pretend  to  give  positive  guidance  as  to  what  ought 
to  be  done  on  every  occasion,  and  so  it  lays  down  rules  as 
to  what  should  not  be  done.  There  are  laws  which  prohibit 
certain  crimes,  and  these  are  enforced  under  penalties  by 
the  magistrate ;  breaches  of  good  manners,  and  conduct 
that  is  dishonourable  or  ungentlemanly,  are  forbidden  under 
the  sanction  of  a  social  ban.  But  as  long  as  conduct  is 
correct,  society  will  give  its  approval ;  it  does  not  pretend 
to  pry  into  the  inner  life,  or  gauge  the  personal  character. 
Christian  influence  begins  with  that  which  social  moraUty 
is  forced  to  leave  on  one  side  ;  the  gospel  aims  at  influencing 
the  inner  life  and  character  ;  and  it  endeavours  to  accom- 
plish its  aim,  not  by  mere  prohibition,  but  by  holding  up  an 
ideal.  Christianity  sets  forth  positively  what  is  good  and 
pure  and  noble,  in  the  hope  that  it  will  win  admiration  and 

1  See  above,  p.  43. 


184  CHRISTIAN  CHARACTER  [ch. 

call  forth  effort.  Social  morality  is  prohibitory  ;  it  seeks  to 
impress  and  mould  the  individual  from  without,  while  the 
gospel  is  inspiring,  and  by  planting  and  fostering  what  is 
good  within  the  man,  goes  to  the  root  of  the  matter,  in  the 
confidence  that  a  better  life  will  develop  from  within.  The 
cultivation  of  good  serves  as  a  touchstone  to  detect  evil, 
and  it  may  be  the  most  effective  method  of  disarming  the 
attractions  of  evil ;  but  such  effects  are  incidental,  rather 
than  the  conscious  aim  in  the  building  up  of  Christian 
character.  The  maxim  to  cleave  to  that  which  is  good  is 
paramount  in  Christian  morality  :  it  is  by  holding  up  that 
which  is  good,  so  that  men  may  feel  its  attraction,  that  evil 
may  be  discarded  and  its  influence  be  outgrown  ;  and  this 
whole  method  of  procedure  is  the  very  reverse  of  the  course 
pursued  by  ordinary  social  morality.  Christianity  goes  far 
deeper  than  any  social  morality,  and  brings  more  effective 
influence  to  bear  upon  the  personal  life. 

(6)  The  insufficiency  of  ordinary  social  morality  is  con- 
spicuous in  regard  to  the  restraint  of  animal  passions  : 
external  correctness,  and  decency  of  behaviour  can  be 
enforced  ;  but  the  springs  of  evil,  in  the  imagination  and 
the  desires,  cannot  be  reached,  and  occasional  irregularities 
in  men's  lives  are  commonly  treated  as  excusable.  Here 
again.  Christian  influence  begins  with  the  inner  hfe,  and  is 
brought  to  bear  upon  secret  conduct ;  it  holds  up  positive 
ideals,  which  may  take  such  possession  of  a  man's  nature 
as  to  prove  an  expulsive  force  and  drive  out  what  is  gross 
and  impure. 

The  life  of  perpetual  virginity, — of  complete  chastity, — is 
held  up  as  an  ideal  both  in  Scripture  and  in  the  Church  ; 
it  is  commended  as  the  most  complete  self-discipline,  and  as 
the  condition  of  life  which  may  be  most  free  from  anxieties 
and  distractions.  This  ideal  has  had  a  strong  fascination 
for  many  men  and  women  ;  and,  as  realised  in  the  life  of  the 
Benedictines,  it  played  a  great  part  in  the  conversion  of  the 
barbarians  who  had  overrun  the  Roman  Empire. 


I.]  THE  RESTRAINT  OF  PASSION  18.0 

Many  modem  men  cherish  a  different  conception  of  duty 
in  this  matter,  as  they  feel  that  the  power  of  perpetuating 
the  race  is  the  greatest  privilege  and  responsibility  that  falls 
to  the  lot  of  man.  It  is  of  supreme  importance  that  the 
men  and  women  of  the  coming  generation  should  be  sound 
in  body  and  mind,  and  fitted  to  enjoy  and  maintain  the 
great  heritage  of  civilisation  on  which  they  will  enter.  To 
carry  on  the  life  of  a  worthy  stock,  and  of  a  great  nation,  is 
a  duty  and  responsibility  which  selfish  natures  are  ready  to 
shirk.  In  the  recognition  of  paternity  and  maternity,  as 
a  privilege  involving  much  anxiety  and  care,  the  whole 
conception  of  sexual  relations  is  elevated,  and  redeemed 
from  everything  that  is  merely  gross  and  selfish.  The 
conception  of  Christian  marriage  includes  at  once  a  field  for 
self-discipline  and  self-sacrifice,  and  the  exercise  of  authori- 
tative care  and  discipline  in  a  household  ;  it  is  a  high 
vocation,  and  not  to  be  undertaken  lightly.  Men  who  aim 
at  entering  this  state,  who  have  a  high  conception  of  the 
responsibilities  of  paternity,  and  desire  to  fit  themselves  in 
mind  and  in  body  for  the  discharge  of  its  duties,  have  set  an 
ideal  before  them  which  is  an  incentive  to  purity  of  thought, 
and  a  safeguard  against  irregularity  of  life.^ 

Tlie  maintenance  of  a  high  aim  in  this  matter,  and  the 
formation  of  a  character  influenced  by  either  of  these 
ideals,  is  a  personal  matter  ;  the  conscious  effort  of  the 
Christian  is  to  carry  out  a  personal  duty,  and  to  bring 
every  thought  and  act  under  the  obedience  of  Christ ;  but 
none  the  less  there  is,  indirectly,  a  very  real  influence  on 
other  lives  as  well.  Personal  example  in  refraining  from 
contamination,  even  by  the  indulgence  of  curiosity,  is 
a  far  more  effective  protest  against  the  worst  of  social 
evils,  than  any  attempt  to  expose  the  shame  and  horror  of 
vice  can  ever  be.  The  course  of  personal  conduct,  which 
Christianity  commends,  has  also  a  bearing  on  the  most 
far-reaching  of  all  economic  difficulties  ;   the  indulgence  of 

*  H.  Wegener,  Wirjungtn  Manner,  p.  183. 


186  CHKISTIAN  CHARACTER  [ch. 

animal  passion  is  the  cause  of  the  constant  pressure  of 
population  on  the  means  of  subsistence,  and  of  all  the 
poverty  and  misery  to  which  it  gives  rise.  The  strongest 
of  all  preventive  checks  will  be  found  in  the  high  ideal 
which  Christianity  maintains  of  marriage  as  a  vocation, 
and  of  continence  as  a  duty. 

(c)  Other  personal  duties  take  an  entirely  new  character 
when  they  are  viewed  from  the  Christian  standpoint ;  this 
is  especially  the  case  in  regard  to  diligence  in  business. 
According  to  the  common  sense  of  mankind,  the  ordinary 
routine  of  work  is  a  drudgery  to  which  most  of  us  are  driven 
by  necessity,  and  this  view  of  the  case  gets  a  certain  sanction 
from  Old  Testament  theology,  in  which  the  obligation  to 
labour  is  represented  as  imposed  on  mankind  as  part  of  the 
penalty  of  the  Fall.  Diligence  may  also  be  enjoined  as  a 
counsel  of  prudence,  and  the  Books  of  Proverbs  and  of 
Ecclesiastes  are  full  of  admonitions  to  work  from  this  point 
of  view.  But  the  teaching  of  Christ  raises  it  all  to  a  higher 
level ;  He  has  taught  us  to  think  of  God  as  the  supreme 
worker,  with  a  purpose  in  view  which  all  created  things  were 
intended,  to  subserve ;  Christ  Himself,  in  His  human  nature, 
realised,  as  no  man  had  ever  done  before,  that  in  all  His 
activities  He  was  called  to  be  a  fellow-worker  with  God. 
'  My  Father  worketh  hitherto,  and  I  work ' ;  all  His  teach- 
ing and  all  His  healing  was  to  Him  a  conscious  carrying 
out  of  God's  work  in  the  world.  The  same  idea  comes  out 
in  St.  Paul's  writings  ;  all  his  activities,  whether  he  was 
labouring  as  a  ten1>maker,  or  disputing  A^ath  the  Jews,  or 
preaching  to  the  Greeks,  or  writing  to  his  converts,  were 
undertaken  with  the  desire  of  being  a  fellow-labourer  with 
God,  and  in  the  hope  that  God's  blessing  would  rest  upon 
his  labours.  In  this  way  we  get  a  clue  to  the  very  meaning 
of  work  in  the  Christian  view  of  life  ;  work  is  the  active 
effort  to  give  effect  to  the  will  of  God.^  The  whole  is  taken 
out  of  the  range  of  personal  interests  and  selfish  gain,  and 

»  The  Oospel  of  Work,  p.  28. 


1.]  DILIGENCE  IN  BUSINESS  187 

raised  to  a  diflferent  level,  when  our  activities  are  thouglil 
of  as  devoted  to  the  carrying  out  of  God's  purpose.  All 
work  has  this  character,  whatever  direction  activity  may 
take.  The  work  of  God  in  creation  prepared  the  earth  to 
be  the  dwelling-place  of  man,  and  all  the  energy  and  enter- 
prise which  are  devoted  to  developing  material  resources, 
and  providing  for  the  increased  comfort  of  growing  popula- 
tions, may  be  consciously  undertaken  with  the  thought  of 
carrying  out  God's  purpose  for  mankind  more  fully.  We 
may  also  recognise  that  in  the  course  of  the  world's  history 
there  has  been  an  education  of  mankind  in  the  preparation 
for  the  coming  of  our  Lord,  and  in  the  institution  for  diffus- 
ing and  maintaining  the  Faith  once  delivered  to  the  saints  ; 
and  that  all  that  is  now  done  for  the  improvement  of  human 
powers  in  mind,  or  character,  or  will,  is  a  carrying  on  of  this 
side  of  the  Divine  working  in  the  world.  There  is  no  task, 
however  humble  or  however  high,  that  may  not  be  thought 
of  religiously,  as  a  vocation  assigned  to  us  by  God,  and  each 
man  is  called  to  co-operate  with  God  by  diligence  in  his 
vocation. 

From  this  Christian  standpoint,  we  can  see  the  true 
dignity  of  work,  and  may  recognise  that  it  is  a  duty  incum- 
bent upon  all.  If  work  were  really  a  penalty,  or  merely  a 
drudgery,  there  could  be  no  discredit  in  trying  to  escape  it. 
In  the  ancient  world,  as  well  as  in  Judaism,  work  was 
regarded  as  a  necessary  evil  which  was  contrasted  with  a  life 
of  leisure — work  as  something  to  be  done  at  the  will  of 
another,  and  leisure  as  the  opportunity  of  pleasing  oneself. 
But  from  the  Christian  standpoint,  this  contrast  cannot  be 
sharply  drawn  ;  all  time  is  to  be  spent  in  accordance  with 
God's  will ;  none  is  to  be  spent  by  the  Lord's  servant  in 
self-willed  indulgence,  or  in  disregard  of  his  Master's  will. 
Some  men  have  tasks  assigned  them  at  which  they  muat 
work  long  hours  to  maintain  their  independence,  while 
others  are  free  to  choose  the  direction  of  their  energies,  and 
to  undertak'5  duties  that  are  unremunerated  ;    but  the 


188  CHRISTIAN  CHARACTER  [ca 

Christian  duty  of  diligence  is  the  same  in  all  these  cases. 
Since  there  is  a  high  dignity  in  work,  the  refusal  to  work  on 
any  excuse,  or  the  deliberate  claim  to  live  in  idleness,  is  a 
sin. 

The  deliberate  effort  to  consecrate  the  toil  of  every  day 
as  it  comes,  by  regarding  it  as  something  done  for  God,  has 
been  recognised  as  a  Christian  duty  in  all  ages,  '  Not 
slothful  in  business,  fervent  in  spirit,  serving  the  Lord  '  ; 
'  Not  with  eye-service  as  men-pleasers,  but  as  the  servants 
of  Christ  doing  the  will  of  God  from  the  heart ' ;  and  again, 
'  Whether  ye  eat  or  drink,  or  whatsoever  ye  do,  do  all  to 
the  glory  of  God.'  This  is  the  character  Avhich  the  Christian 
is  to  cultivate  in  respect  of  the  use  of  his  time  ;  it  is  the 
condemnation  of  all  self-will  and  self-pleasing,  whether  that 
is  shoAVTi  in  doing  work  badly,  or  in  mere  idleness. 

{d)  The  strength  of  the  influence  which  Christian  devo- 
tion can  bring  into  play  is  exhibited  in  its  power  of  restrain- 
ing passion  ;  but  in  connection  with  this  thought  of  personal 
service  of  God,  we  may  see  how  far-reaching  this  influence 
is,  and  in  how  many  different  directions  the  principle  may 
operate.  Just  because  it  is  at  work  within,  this  devotion 
not  only  inspires  to  activity,  but  may  colour  and  affect 
all  the  relationships  into  which  we  are  brought  through 
these  activities. 

The  bearing  of  employers  towards  employed,  and  of 
men  to  masters,  would  be  entirely  altered,  if  the  contract 
between  them  should  cease  to  be  thought  of  as  merely  their 
private  affair,  which  begins  and  ends  with  themselves  and 
their  class. ^  Christianity  insists  that  no  man  liveth  to 
himself.  The  employer  is  not  wholly  independent ;  since 
he  is  God's  servant,  and  he  has  no  right  to  be  either  arrogant 
or  arbitrary  in  the  part  he  plays  in  that  service.  His 
dependents  of  every  kind  are  to  be  thought  of,  however 
menial  their  tasks  may  be,  as  fellow- servants  in  one  house- 
hold. The  employer  is  to  treat  the  fellow -servants  as  his 
1  See  above,  p.  118. 


i.l  PERSONAL  RELATIONSHIPS  189 

Master  would  wish  ;  from  this  new  point  of  view  he  will  not 
overlook  any  lack  of  diligence  and  thoroughness  in  work  ; 
lie  is  to  be  a  strict  foreman,  and  not  to  connive  at  the  care- 
lessness of  other  servants.  But  since,  through  business 
relations,  he  is  brouglit  into  touch  with  them,  he  is  called 
on  to  think,  not  merely  of  the  time  and  quahty  of  service, 
but  of  the  conditions  of  their  lives,  and  the  possibihty  of 
ameliorating  them.  His  Master  cares,  not  merely  for  the 
quantity  and  quality  of  the  out-put,  but  for  the  loyalty  of 
His  servants  of  every  rank.  The  employer  is  called  upon  to 
give  his  thought  and  care  to  ameliorate  the  conditions  and 
raise  the  character  of  the  lives  of  those  who  are  dependent 
on  him — not  out  of  any  mere  humanitarian  sentiment  of 
brotherhood,  but  because  this  is  the  duty  enjoined  by  his 
Master  on  all  who  administer  any  part  of  His  household. 
The  recognition  by  the  men  of  the  fact  that  their  employer  is, 
after  all,  a  fellow-servant,  need  not  make  for  disrespect,  but 
for  respect  of  a  different  kind  ;  the  employer  has  been  set 
over  them  ;  they  are  not  called  upon  to  criticise  or  to  inter- 
fere in  the  task  that  has  been  committed  to  another  man. 
In  so  far  as  this  religious  view  makes  itself  felt,  the  men 
will  be  less  ready  to  meddle  in  the  control  of  the  business, 
oi'  to  try  to  run  it  on  their  own  lines  and  in  what  they 
believe  to  be  their  interests.  After  all,  neither  the  interest 
of  the  employer,  as  he  sees  it,  nor  the  interest  of  the  men, 
as  they  see  it,  is  paramount,  when  all  aUke  are  servants. 

The  Christian  conception  of  work  as  a  form  of  personal 
service  is  instructive  in  other  ways,  as  it  sets  many  questions 
as  to  the  intensity  of  work  and  the  advantages  of  leisure  in 
a  new  aspect.  ^Vl^ere  a  man  views  his  work  as  his  mere 
private  affair,  and  pursues  it  for  the  sake  of  personal  gain, 
the  virtue  of  diligence  may  degenerate  till  it  becomes  a 
self-imposed  tyranny ;  '  it  is  but  lost  labour  that  they  rise 
up  early  and  so  late  take  rest,  and  eat  the  bread  of  care- 
fulness.' The  principle  which  condemns  over-eagerness 
about  the  reward  of  work,  may  also  correct  the  undue 


190  CHRISTIAN  CHARACTER  [ch. 

hankering  after  amusement.  There  may  be  a  misuse  of 
leisure,  as  well  as  a  too  great  intensity  of  application  to 
work  ;  where  free  time  is  spent  in  such  a  way  that  a  man 
is  less  fitted,  in  mind  or  body,  for  devoting  himself  to  the 
day's  task,  there  has  been  unwise  self-indulgence.  Rest- 
ing and  recreation  alike  serve  their  purpose  by  rendering 
a  man  better  fit  for  the  active  exercise  of  his  faculties  in 
his  vocation. 

Here  once  again  we  find  that  the  direct  aim  of  Christian 
teaching  is  to  form  Christian  character,  so  that  the  whole 
life  of  the  man  shall  be  led  in  increasing  accord  with  Chris- 
tian ideals.  This  teaching  can  give  a  contentment  in 
uncongenial  employments,  and  can  inspire  to  diligence 
in  business  which  has  to  be  done  without  hope  of  reward. 
But  while  its  primary  influence  is  on  personal  feeling  and 
character,  it  has  indirect  bearings  on  social  life  as  well. 
It  may  help  us  to  distinguish,  not  only  for  ourselves  but 
for  others,  what  is  right  with  regard  to  intensity  of  applica- 
tion, and  wise  in  regard  to  various  forms  of  recreation. 
Its  effect  may  be  felt  in  society  at  large,  in  so  far  as  it 
conduces  to  diligence  that  is  not  dependent  either  on 
compulsion  from  without,  or  on  mere  self-seeking.  By 
aiming  consciously  at  the  service  of  God,  it  comes  indirectly 
to  accomplish  much  for  the  good  of  man. 

3.  The  Responsibility  of  Trusteeship 

(a)  Only  a  very  slight  extension  is  needed  to  make  the 
Christian  conception  of  service,  which  has  been  delineated 
in  regard  to  human  activities,  applicable  also  to  human 
possessions.  It  has  been  pointed  out  above,  that  the  rights 
of  private  property  are  exclusive  as  against  private  persons 
and  as  against  the  public,^  but  no  human  being  can  claim 
to  have  the  exclusive  ownership  and  right  to  use  any 
created  thing  as  against  God,  Human  life  is  short  at  the 
1  See  above,  p.  86. 


I.]  THE  EARTH  IS  THE  LORD'S  191 

best ;  man  enters  on  life  naked,  and  he  can  take  nothing 
with  him  when  he  dies  ;  but  the  earth  remains,  the  seasons 
come  and  go,  and  the  work  of  the  world  continues.  Tlierc 
is  one  Purpose  and  Mind  abiding  and  controlling  still  ; 
'  The  earth  is  the  Lord's  and  the  fulness  thereof.'  He  is 
the  creator  and  governor  of  all ;  the  rights  and  privileges 
and  possessions  and  immunities  of  human  proprietors  sink 
into  utter  insignificance,  when  we  realise  the  truth  that  all 
we  claim  to  use  is  not  really  ours,  except  as  the  power  to 
use  it  is  given  by  Him  Who  is  the  creator  of  all  things  and 
the  Father  of  all  men.  From  this  point  of  view,  it  is  clear 
that  all  human  proprietorship  is  of  the  nature  of  steward- 
ship— that  man  is  in  the  position  of  a  trustee  responsible 
for  the  administration  of  the  goods  in  his  hands,  to  Him 
who  conferred  this  trust.  Man  can  never  be  justified  in 
claiming  to  exercise  his  ownership  in  a  manner  that  is 
irresponsible  or  arbitrary.  No  man  can  ever  be  justified 
in  asserting  a  right  to  do  as  he  likes  with  his  own  ;  it  is  not 
his  either  to  waste  or  to  destroy.  Man  has  nothing  that 
he  has  not  received  ;  he  is  not  an  absolute  owner,  who 
might  insist  on  a  right  to  carry  out  his  own  whims  capri- 
ciously, but  a  responsible  servant  to  whom  the  use  and 
control  of  certain  things  has  been  committed  by  his  Master. 
(b)  This  Christian  sense  of  responsibility  is  an  incentive 
to  lead  a  man  to  use  the  resources  under  his  control  in 
the  best  way.  He  is  encouraged  not  merely  to  avoid 
the  careless  and  reckless  destruction  which  has  so  often 
characterised  human  conduct,  but  to  employ  his  possessions 
in  a  manner  which  is  in  accordance  with  liis  Master's  will, 
so  far  as  he  can  understand  it.  In  this  decision,  the 
conception  given  in  Scripture  of  the  purpose  of  creation 
must  be  a  guiding  principle.  The  maintaining  and 
improving  the  life  of  the  community,  and  the  fitting  of 
property  for  those  uses  which  best  subserve  the  require- 
ments of  the  community,^  may  be  attempted,  not  merely 

1  See  above,  p.  139. 


192  CHRISTIAN  CHARACTER  [cH. 

for  the  sake  of  personal  gain,  but  from  a  sense  of  religious 
duty.  The  same  thought  may  be  brought  to  bear  in 
regard  to  the  choice  of  the  direction  in  which  wealth  is 
employed,  and  the  investment  of  capital.  There  are 
directions  in  which  men  ought  to  feel  that  it  is  wrong  to  use 
their  wealth  ;  as,  for  example,  in  catering  for  demoralising 
tastes  in  opium  dens,  or  places  of  low  amusement,  however 
much  sordid  gain  such  investments  of  capital  may  bring. 
But,  on  the  whole,  the  man  of  wealth  may  be  confident 
that  he  is  employing  his  wealth  to  good  purpose,  if  it  is  so 
used  as  to  afford  employment  and  to  give  to  other  men 
the  opportunity  of  leading  industrious  and  self-respecting 
lives. ^  In  the  present  regime  of  giant  industry  and  com- 
petition, the  extent  to  which  any  man  is  free  to  modify 
the  terms  and  conditions  of  employment  may  be  very 
narrow,  and  the  best  results  are  secured  by  prudent  action 
on  the  part  of  the  State  in  prohibiting  what  is  injurious  to 
the  standard  of  life.^  It  is  the  duty  of  the  proprietor,  as  a 
citizen,  to  help  by  his  experience  to  do  this  wisely  ;  but 
where  there  is  no  outside  pressure,  and  in  so  far  as  he  is 
free  to  act  and  has  a  part  in  the  management  of  a  business, 
he  is  responsible  for  the  conditions  of  life  and  the  welfare 
of  those  who  are  his  dependants. 

The  duty  of  considerateness,  which  comes  upon  every 
employer,  comes  also  in  degree  on  every  shareholder  in  a 
great  railway  or  industrial  company.  Those  who  lend 
money  to  Governments,  or  are  debenture  holders  in  public 
companies,  may  be  satisfied  if  the  purposes  for  which  the 
loan  is  made  commend  themselves  as  sound  ;  but  the 
ordinary  or  preference  shareholder  is  both  morally  and 
legally  a  partner  ;  the  man  who  is  entirely  ignorant  of  the 
conditions  of  a  business  from  which  he  derives  an  income 
cannot  attempt  to  discharge  this  responsibility ;  he 
neither  knows  how  far  anything  is  wrong,  nor  in  what 
way  it  may  be  possible  to  put  things  right.  The  re- 
1  See  above,  p.  94.  •  See  above,  p.  90. 


I.]  OBLIGATIONS  OF  THE  WEALTHY  193 

sponsibility  of  the  individual  shareholder  is  small,  but  it 
cannot  be  right  to  shirk  it  altogether,  and  it  is  a  duty  for 
every  partner  to  try  to  discharge  it  to  the  best  of  his 
power. 

(c)  The  fact  that  some  men  have  very  large  possessions 
while  others  are  poor,  and  the  inequalities  of  life,  are  hard 
to  justify,  when  property  is  regarded  as  a  private  thing  which 
a  man  may  use  capriciously  ;  but  they  cease  to  be  a  serious 
evil  in  so  far  as  the  wealthy  realise  that  great  property 
entails  great  responsibilities,  and  that  the  rights  which 
they  claim  as  against  other  men  imply  also  duties  which 
they  are  bound  in  the  sight  of  God  to  discharge  towards 
other  men.  The  possessions  with  which  a  man  has  been 
entrusted  help  to  mark  out  the  career  on  wliich  he  can 
enter,  ^  they  help  to  define  his  vocation  in  life,  and  thus 
great  possessions  are  a  call  to  special  service.  The  man 
who  has  large  property  has  the  opportunity  of  undertaking 
work  that  is  unremunerated ;  and  much  of  the  work  that 
is  best  worth  doing  in  the  world,  in  science  and  literature  as 
well  as  in  public  life,  is  unremunerated.  Similarly,  the 
man  who  has  a  large  amount  of  '  personal  capital '-  may 
aspire  to  direct  his  energies  to  the  higher  walks  of  profes- 
sional and  administrative  life  from  wliich  other  men  are 
excluded  ;  but  the  obligation  '  to  do  what  the  hand  finds 
to  do  heartily  and  as  unto  the  Lord  '  remains  the  same  in 
any  and  every  walk  of  life.  The  author  or  the  teacher 
may  scamp  his  work  as  really  as  the  much-abused  plumber, 
though  his  negligences  may  not  be  so  easily  detected  ;  but 
the  duty  of  conscientious  work,  even  if  it  is  inadequately 
paid,  or  when  it  is  altogether  unpaid,  is  always  binding.  At 
a  time  when  the  position  and  rights  of  the  owners  of  property 
are  being  called  in  question,  and  when  there  is  so  much 
eagerness  to  level  down,  the  continuance  of  their  privileges 
must  largely  depend  on  the  extent  to  which  the  owners  of 
large  possessions  recognise  their  responsibilities,  and  regard 
1  See  above,  p.  1U9.  *  See  above,  p.  111. 

N 


194  CHRISTIAJ^  CHARACTER  (cH. 

their  wealth  not  merely  as  an  opportunity  for  enjoyment, 
but  as  a  call  to  service. 

{d)  When  the  responsibilities  of  possession  are  looked 
at  in  their  religious  aspect,  the  current  phrases  in  regard  to 
the  sacredness  of  property  come  to  have  a  new  meaning. 
Property  is  sacred,  in  so  far  as  the  facts,  that  it  has  been 
conferred  by  God  and  ought  to  be  used  for  His  will,  are 
recognised.^  Hence  misuse  of  property  springs  from  the 
failure  to  recognise  this  responsibility ;  the  root  goes  very 
deep,  and  the  mischief  spreads  in  many  directions,  so  that 
utilitarian  considerations  as  to  apparent  and  obvious  waste 
do  not  bring  it  to  light.  The  essential  evU  in  gambling 
lies  in  the  fact  that  it  is  avowedly  and  deliberately  a  careless 
and  reckless  use  of  money  for  mere  passing  excitement, 
and  that  it  is  the  bold  denial  of  any  responsibility  on  the 
part  of  the  owner  for  what  he  does  with  what  he  calls  his 
own.  The  evil  of  gambling  has  spread  so  very  rapidly 
during  the  last  generation  among  the  working  classes,  and 
it  has  come  to  affect  a  great  deal  of  commercial  business 
so  injuriously,  that  it  raises  many  problems  which  it  is 
important  to  consider  from  a  Christian  point  of  view. 

We  need  not  forget  that  there  may  be  many  cases  which 
are  exceptional,  and  where  gambling  is  not  necessarily 
wrong.  It  may  serve  the  purpose  of  recreation ;  the 
counter-irritation  of  losing  sixpence  a  hundred  at  bridge  in 
the  evening  may  be  a  wholesome  distraction  from  grave 
anxieties  that  have  pressed  upon  a  man  all  day,  and  thus 
serve  as  a  preventive  of  insomnia.  If  a  man  does  not 
venture  the  loss  of  more  money  than  he  can  rightly  afiford 
for  recreation,  he  does  not  do  wrong,  provided  the  man 
he  plays  with  is  in  a  similar  position.  Gambling  can  be 
justified  under  such  conditions ;  but  looked  at  on  the 
whole,  the  practice  is  more  than  questionable,  because  of 
the  hkelihood  of  inducing  those  who  cannot  afford  it  to 
indulge  in  it,  and  because  it  gratifies  a  desire  to  gain  apart 
1  See  above,  p.  86. 


I.]  RECKLESSNESS  ABOUT  WEALTH  IDS 

from  service  rendered.  When  thus  indulged,  gambling  is 
wrong  ;  it  is  irreligious,  because  it  implies  the  claim  to  be 
irresponsible  and  to  throw  money  about ;  it  is  unsocial, 
because  such  gain  as  accrues  is  obtained  at  the  expense 
of  others  and  without  the  rendering  of  any  service  to  the 
community  ;  hence  it  lies  under  a  double  condemnation. 
A  complaint  is  commonly  made  that  business  in  the 
present  day  is  mere  gambling,  and  that  there  is  no  differ- 
ence between  gambling  at  Monte  Carlo  and  gambling  on 
the  Stock  Exchange.  It  is  true  that  there  are  risks  and 
uncertainties  in  business  ;  wherever  there  are  risks  or 
uncertainties  it  is  possible  to  gamble  on  the  chances,  and 
many  sorts  of  business  offer  opportunities  for  gambling. 
But  to  men  of  business  who  are  trying  to  do  business,  the 
gambling  element  is  a  difficulty  and  a  nuisance  ;  business 
of  every  kind  is  organised  in  order  to  cater  for  the  wants  of 
the  public.  Good  business  is  done  by  the  man  who  caters 
successfully ;  he  tries  to  foresee  the  uncertainties  of 
business,  so  as  to  guard  against  them,  and  to  reduce  their 
disturbing  influence  to  a  minimum  ;  it  is  the  effort  of  the 
merchant  and  manufacturer  to  eliminate  risk  and  un- 
certainty as  far  as  may  be,  to  provide  against  the  possi- 
bilities of  loss,  and  to  enter  on  undertakings  where  a  prospect 
of  gain,  perhaps  more  or  perhaps  less,  may  be  counted  upon. 
Constant  thought  and  attention  are  needed  to  minimise 
risks  and  to  carry  on  business.  Those  who  enter  on 
business  as  if  it  were  a  game  of  chance,  are  doing  no  service 
to  the  public  ;  lucky  chances  may  come  to  them  at  times, 
but  men  who  hope  to  live  by  lucky  chances,  and  not  by 
honest  effort,  are  merely  preying  upon  the  energy  and 
enterprise  of  others.^  The  legitimate  business  of  the 
Stock  Exchange  is  of  service  to  the  community,  as  it  enables 
the  available  capital  of  the  public  to  be  directed  into 
investments  in  which  it  gives  income  to  the  owners  and 
employment  to  the  labourer.  It  provides  the  machinery 
>  See  above,  p.  130. 


196  CHRISTIAN  CHARACTER  [ch. 

without  which  investors  would  have  great  difficulty  in 
finding  how  to  use  their  capital  ;  and  many  beneficial 
enterprises  could  hardly  be  undertaken  if  some  such 
organisation  did  not  exist.  That  the  facilities  which  it 
ofifers  may  be  misused  is  true  enough ;  it  is  likely  to  be 
true  so  long  as  there  are  knaves  and  fools  in  the  world  ;  but 
to  stigmatise  all  business  in  which  uncertainties  enter,  as 
if  it  were  mere  gambling,  is  to  overlook  fundamental 
distinctions.  Business  is  not  a  lottery  in  which  the 
ignorant  and  the  skilled  have  an  equal  chance  of  success ; 
it  is  something  that  has  to  be  pursued  with  patience  and 
diligence,  and  it  reaps  its  reward  because  of  the  service 
which  it  renders  to  the  public. 

Most  mischievous  as  gambling  is,  there  is  great  difficulty 
in  framing  and  enforcing  any  rules  and  regulations  which 
shall  serve  to  check  the  practice,  either  as  it  is  carried  on 
in  connection  with  sport,  or  as  it  affects  business.  The 
legislature  and  the  poHce  appear  to  be  almost  powerless 
in  the  face  of  this  growing  evil :  the  best  hope  of  dealing 
with  it  lies,  not  in  attempting  to  put  down  the  practice, 
but  in  endeavours  to  exorcise  the  spirit  of  gambling.  This 
can  only  be  done  by  cultivating  a  sense  of  the  responsi- 
bilities of  property,  and  the  case  is  of  interest  as  it  illustrates 
the  truth  that  Christian  influence  can  reach  and  touch  evils 
that  elude  all  other  methods  of  dealing  with  them  ;^  what 
cannot  be  eradicated  by  direct  methods  of  attack  may  be 
outgrown. 

Christian  devotion,  as  a  spiritual  force,  has  the  promise 
of  the  life  that  is  to  come  ;  but  to  those  who  are  seeking  to 
reahse  the  will  of  God,  all  other  things  are  added.  It  is  a 
living  power,  which  operates  indirectly  on  society,  through 
ihp  individual  hearts  and  minds  to  which  it  makes  its 
appeal  by  the  attractiveness  of  perfect  goodness  incarnate 
in  a  human  form.  It  is  strong  enough  to  master  passion. 
It  is  far-reaching  and  can  permeate  all  human  relationships, 
1  See  above,  pp.  18,  175, 


1 1  RECKLESSNESS  ABOUT  WEALTH  l»7 

80  as  to  redeem  them  from  selfishness  and  self-will,  [t  can 
go  to  the  root  of  evils  which  superficial  remedies  fail  to 
touch  in  any  way.  It  can  serve  more  effectively  than 
anything  else  to  rouse  the  sense  of  personal  duty,  and  to 
enable  men  to  make  the  most,  for  themselves  and  for  others, 
of  the  opportunities  offered  in  a  well-ordered  society. 


198  SECULARISED  CHRISTIANITY  (ca 


CHAPTER  II 

SECULARISED   CHRISTIANITY 
1.  Avowedly  Christian  Socialism 

(a)  From  apostolic  times  to  the  present  day  there  has 
been  clear  and  consistent  teaching  as  to  the  manner  in 
which  Christian  belief  ought  to  affect  men's  lives.  St.  Paul 
urged  on  his  converts  that  they  should  dedicate  themselves 
'  a  living  sacrifice  to  God,  and  be  transformed  by  the 
renewing  of  the  mind.'  This  change  of  personal  character 
was  to  find  expression  in  all  the  duties  of  life,  and  thus  to 
affect  society.  But  some  Christians,  who  still  recognise 
that  this  principle  is  sound,  seem  now  to  be  disheartened  by 
the  slowness  with  which  it  operates  ;  they  are  anxious  that 
it  should  be  supplemented  by  something  more  direct.  The 
philanthropy  of  the  present  day  sees  that  social  evils  exist 
on  a  large  scale,  and  insists  that  they  must  be  dealt  with  in 
a  wholesale  way.  It  is  thought  to  be  altogether  inadequate 
to  be  content  with  seeking  for  a  lost  slieep  here  and  another 
there,  while  there  is  need  to  elevate  and  improve  the  masses 
of  mankind.  It  is  plausible,  too,  to  say  that  Christ's 
teaching  was  social  and  not  merely  personal,  and  that, 
proclaiming  the  kingdom  of  God,  He  was  assuming  the 
reconstruction  of  society  as  part  of  His  mission.^  The  very 
fact  that  He  cared  for  and  healed  men's  bodies  seems  to 
show  that  He  thought  of  the  conditions  and  externals  of 
life,  as  well  as  of  the  heart  and  of  the  soul.'^  It  is  said 
that,  if  we  are  to  interpret  the  gospel  message  in  all  its 
1  See  below,  p.  218.  *  See  below,  p.  220. 


n.]  PHILANTHROPIC  AIMS  193 

fulness,  we  must  try  to  supplement  its  work  on  the  char- 
acter, individually  and  personally,  by  formulating  and 
carrying  through  schemes  for  bringing  a  direct  influence  to 
bear,  in  the  name  of  Christ,  upon  the  disorders  of  existing 
society.  Those  who  are  keen  to  apply  Christian  principles 
directly  to  social  institutions,  and  to  the  regulation  of 
social  forces,  are  conscious  that  they  are  making  a  new 
departure  :  while  apologising  for  the  remissness  of  other 
generations  of  Christian  men,  they  claim  that  Christianity 
is  now  setting  herself  to  enlarge  the  sphere  of  her  action, 
so  as  not  merely  to  work  for  the  salvation  of  souls,  but  also 
to  take  a  lead  in  the  cause  of  social  reform. 

This  enlarged  view  of  the  scope  of  the  teaching  of  Christ 
commends  itself  to  philanthropists,  who  resent  the  ex- 
clusiveness  which  characterises  much  Christian  effort. 
The  Church,  they  say,  no  longer  presents  a  united  front  to 
the  world  ;  the  differences  of  opinion  among  professing 
Christians,  on  points  of  doctrine  and  ecclesiastical  organisa- 
tion, render  it  impossible  for  all  Christians  to  work  heartily 
and  loyally  together  in  matters  of  doctrine,  and  worship, 
and  the  fostering  of  personal  religion.  But  they  urge  that 
the  pettiness  and  jealousies,  which  have  been  such  a  hin- 
drance to  the  cause  of  religion,  need  not  interfere  to  check 
the  progress  of  Cliristian  philanthropy.  In  practical 
schemes  for  the  benefit  of  the  masses,  it  would  seem  that  all 
who  have  the  welfare  of  their  fellow-creatures  at  heart  can 
'  join  hands  and  work,'  whatever  may  be  their  opinions  on 
points  of  faith,  or  their  professions  in  regard  to  worship. 
'  He  that  is  not  against  us  is  with  us  '  is  quoted  by  those 
who  call  themselves  Christian  Socialists,  as  indicating  a  duty 
to  go  forward  with  works  of  philanthropy  and  social  amelio- 
ration in  the  name  of  Christ,  and  to  welcome  the  assistance 
of  all  who  are  willing  to  range  themselves  under  that  banner. 

(6)  Now,  undoubtedly,  there  are  many  philanthropic 
works  in  which  a  Christian  man  may  feel  called  upon  to  en- 
gage, and  in  regard  to  which  religious  questions  need  not  be 


200  SECULARISED  CHRISTIANITY  [ch, 

raised  at  all.  Just  because  Christianity  is  a  spiritual  power, 
it  can  be  brought  to  bear  in  any  and  every  direction.^  It 
is  the  duty  of  the  Christian  citizen  to  take  part  with  others 
of  any  creed  or  of  none,  in  using  the  power  of  the  State  to 
put  doAATi  what  is  injurious  in  the  action  of  competition  ;  - 
he  ought,  indeed,  under  the  influence  of  the  Christian  motive, 
to  be  more  eager  than  other  citizens  to  discharge  any  secular 
duty  and  to  carry  on  any  measures  that  make  for  the  amel- 
ioration of  the  conditions  in  which  human  life  is  passed. 
The  same  thing  is  true  of  much  voluntary  effort  and  volun- 
tary association  for  the  promotion  of  welfare  ;  the  work  of 
hospitals  and  of  district  nurses,  of  societies  for  the  organising 
of  charitable  relief,  and  for  the  protection  of  children,  may 
all  enlist  the  active  sympathy  and  personal  help  of  good 
men  of  any  creed.  But  just  because  these  efforts  have 
a  humanitarian  character,  and  may  count  among  their 
enthusiastic  supporters  Jews,  Turks,  and  Infidels  as  well  as 
Christians,  they  are  rightly  characterised  as  non-Christian. 
There  is  nothing  about  such  philanthropy  that  is  specifically 
and  peculiarly  Christian.  It  is  the  duty  of  a  Christian  man 
to  be  a  good  neighbour  and  a  good  citizen ;  a  Christian 
ought  to  set  himself  to  do  the  duties  of  citizenship  and  of 
neighbourliness  well ; ,  but  such  duties  are  not  incumbent  on 
Christian  men  only  or  exclusively,  and  may  be  well  done 
by  men  who  would  disclaim  any  Christian  belief  ;  kindli- 
ness may  be  dictated  by  humanitarian  considerations. 
Christianity  has  no  monopoly  of  the  cardinal  virtues  ; 
there  have  been  many  upright,  just,  courageous,  and 
temperate  men  who  made  no  profession  of  Christianity ; 
and  in  much  the  same  way  it  is  true  that  while  human 
kindliness,  and  efforts  for  the  promotion  of  social  welfare, 
are  inspired  by  the  love  of  Christ  and  may  be  undertaken 
for  His  sake,  they  are  not  in  themselves  exclusively  and 
specifically  Christian. 

(c)  At  this  point  a  question  arises  which  is  not  merely  a 

1  See  above,  p.  19.  *  See  above,  p.  lO*). 


II.]  DOUBLE  ALLEGIANCE  201 

question  of  names,  though  it  must  be  raised  about  the  right 
use  of  a  term.  Ought  any  sfhemc  or  conduct,  which  is  not 
essentially  Christian,  to  be  called  Christian  at  all  ?  Can 
there  be  '  practical  Christianity  '  which  is  not  based  on 
conscious  devotion  to  Christ  ?  Does  not  this  phrase  in- 
volve a  misleading  use  of  our  Master's  name  ?  Few  things 
are  more  striking  in  our  Lord's  earthly  ministry  than  His 
insistence  on  single-hearted  devotion  :  again  and  again 
He  applied  the  test  whether  men  were  willing  to  forsake  all 
and  follow  Him  ;  He  speaks  strongly  about  the  impossi- 
bility of  serving  two  masters.  The  conditions  of  earthly 
existence,  the  needs  of  food  and  shelter,  are  pressing ;  in 
the  minds  of  many  socialists  they  are  of  supreme  importance, 
and  nothing  else  counts.  Christianity  ceases  to  be  Christian 
if  it  puts  the  material  prosperity  of  the  masses  in  the  fore- 
front, as  the  thing  that  is  to  be  aimed  at  first  and  before  all 
else,  and  only  claims  that  religion  is  not  to  be  overlooked 
as  one  of  many  means  for  realising  this  secular  aim.  This 
is  Mammon  worship  ;  even  if  it  is  humanitarian  and 
philanthropic,  still  it  is  Mammon  worship,  and  an  apostasy 
from  Christ,  who  sets  before  us  a  spiritual  aim  as  the 
supreme  object  in  earthly  life.  And  in  all  proposals  to 
supplement  the  ministering  of  the  means  of  grace  for  the 
salvation  of  souls,  by  direct  efforts  for  the  ameliorating  of 
conditions,  as  another  form  of  specifically  Christian  work, 
there  is  a  danger  of  setting  up  a  secondary  object  alongside 
of  the  supreme  object  of  Christian  devotion,  and  thus  of 
yielding  a  divided  allegiance.  There  is  at  least  a  possible 
danger  of  giving  undue  prominence  to  secular  and  mundane 
objects,  and  of  allowing  the  spiritual  to  be  relegated  to  a 
subordinate  place,  instead  of  treating  it  as  the  essential 
remedy  for  the  evils  of  our  day.  As  Maurice  insisted, 
'  the  circumstances  of  our  time  show  how  certain  it  is  that 
society  in  the  most  civilised  lands  will  perish  through  the 
frauds  of  rich  men  as  well  as  poor  men — of  the  most 
refined  and  the  most  outwardly  religious — if  there  is  not 


202  SECULARISED  CHRISTIANITY  [ch. 

some  power  which  can  create  a  habit  of  honestj',  which  can 
resist  the  secret  temptations  to  flagrant  dishonesty  in  men 
whom  neither  the  terrors  of  law  nor  of  pubUc  opinion  can 
hinder  from  bringing  disgrace  on  themselves  and  ruin  on 
their  fellow-citizens.  Such  discoveries  give  us  stronger 
reasons  for  asking  whether  the  news  of  such  a  Power  which 
came  to  men  centuries  ago  must  be  discarded  as  false, 
whether  they  may  not  be  accepted  in  a  more  complete  sense 
than  they  have  ever  been  ?  There  are  other  facts  which  the 
sight  of  the  streets  in  every  civilised  capital  bring  home  to 
us,  which  are  brought  much  more  vividly  home  to  those 
earnest  men  who  have  penetrated  into  the  dwellings  within 
these  streets.  Much,  very  much  has  been  done — much 
more  might  be  done — for  the  improvement  of  those  streets 
and  dwellings  by  mechanical  contrivances,  by  medical 
knowledge,  by  wise  legislation.  But  there  are  habits  in 
men  and  women  which  may  set  at  nought  the  efifects  of  all 
mechanical  contrivances,  of  all  medical  knowledge,  of  the 
wisest  legislation.  They  cannot  be  reformed  by  any  of 
these ;  till  they  are  reformed  they  will  produce  ever  more 
crimes,  ever  fresh  misery.  Who  can  work  this  reforma- 
tion ?  Threats  of  punishment  cannot,  promises  of  reward 
carmot.  Is  there  not  some  demand  for  the  old  faith  in  a 
Spirit  to  regenerate  social  life  as  well  as  individual  life,  to 
overcome  the  sources  of  death,  ultimately  to  raise  men  out 
of  death  itself  ?  '^  The  philanthropist  is  not  a  Christian 
philanthropist  unless  his  hopes  and  efforts  for  his  fellow- 
men  are  inspired  by  confidence  in  the  reality  of  spiritual 
power,  as  working  in  the  world  here  and  now. 

2.  Mundane  Theocracies 

[a)  It  is  difficult  to  see  the  grounds  for  the  common  com- 
plaint that  the  Church  has  been  too  exclusively  occupied 
in  that  which  is  spiritual  and  has  not  given  sufficient 

1  Maurice,  Social  Morality,  p.  451. 


II.]  THE  REFORM  OF  SOCIETY  203 

attention  to  secular  life.  It  would  be  more  true  to  say 
that  there  lias  always  been  a  temptation  to  look  too  much 
at  the  constitution  of  society  and  the  possibility  of  modify- 
ing it  in  a  Christian  sense,  and  to  neglect  the  primary  claims 
of  the  spiritual  life.  This  temptation  has  taken  different 
forms  in  different  ages,  according  to  the  constitution  and 
aims  of  civil  society  for  the  time  being.  In  a  democratic 
age,  it  takes  a  shape  which  is  different  from  that  which 
it  assumed  in  connection  with  Imperial  institutions  or 
personal  monarchies  ;  but  there  is  always  a  temptation  for 
Christianity  to  adapt  itself  to  the  spirit  of  the  age,  and 
conform  to  the  conditions  of  society,  to  such  an  extent  that 
it  loses  the  power  of  transforming  them  into  closer  accord- 
ance with  its  own  ideals.  The  dream  of  organising  a  divine 
theocracy,  in  which  effect  should  be  given  to  the  Divine 
Will  among  the  affairs  of  men  by  means  of  civil  power,  has 
often  been  pursued  in  such  a  manner  as  to  distract  attention 
from  the  supreme  importance  of  spiritual  things,  and  to 
bring  discredit  on  the  Christian  religion. 

This  attempt  to  bring  Christianity  directly  to  bear  on 
society  is  very  natural,  since  Christianity  has  sprung 
out  of  Judaism,  and  Judaism  claimed  to  be,  in  its  place 
and  time,  a  divinely  instituted  mundane  theocracy.  The 
kingdom  of  David  and  of  Solomon  was  thought  of  as 
an  earthly  kingdom  in  which  God's  will  was  the  supreme 
rule,  and  regulated  the  tenure  of  property,  the  treatment 
of  dependants,  and  all  other  social  matters.  The  first 
disciples  were  full  of  the  expectation,  during  our  Lord's 
ministry,  that  He  had  come  to  establish  such  a  theocracy, 
but  on  a  still  more  magnificent  scale  and  exercising  a 
world-wide  influence.  Throughout  the  early  centuries  of 
the  Church  the  organisation  of  the  Roman  Empire  served 
to  give  shape  to  the  aspiration  after  establishing  a  great 
theocracy  in  which  spiritual  power  should  be  supreme  ; 
and  this  found  expression  in  the  institutions  of  Latin 
Christendom.     At  a  still  later  time,  the  Presbyterians  in 


204  SECULARISED  CHRISTIANITY  [ch. 

Scotland  and  the  Puritans  in  New  England  attempted  to 
create  a  social  condition  which  should  be  thoroughly  and 
entirely  Christian  ;  but  the  lack  of  success  which  has 
attended  these  efforts  to  Christianise  civil  and  social 
conditions  should  give  us  warning.  In  each  case  the  failure 
has  been  palpable.  From  the  principles  with  which  they 
started,  of  purifying  society  from  all  unchristian  elements, 
there  was  much  to  be  said  for  the  drastic  measures  adopted 
by  Inquisitors  and  for  the  severities  towards  Salem  witches. 
But  these  things  have  brought  discredit  upon  Christianity 
and  have  repelled  men  from  it  altogether.  Even  the  less 
strenuous  efforts  of  English  Churchmen  and  Scotch  Presby- 
terians in  the  seventeenth  and  eighteenth  centuries,  to 
enforce  external  compliance  with  Christian  morality,  in 
external  courts  and  by  external  sanctions,  failed  to  justify 
themselves,  and  left  the  impression  in  many  minds  in  the 
eighteenth  century  that  the  established  churches  were  mere 
departments  of  State. 

(6)  There  is  another  way  in  which  Christianity  may  be 
injured  by  being  closely  identified  with  the  civil  institutions 
of  some  particular  place  and  time.  Christianity  is  not  for  an 
age,  but  for  all  time  ;  while  economic  conditions  and  social 
relationships  in  any  country,  and  certainly  in  progressive 
countries,  can  only  be  for  their  own  age ;  none  of  them  can 
be  valid  for  all  time.  To  insist  that  any  one  form  of  social 
organisation  is  prescribed  by  Christianity  is  implicitly  to 
deny  that  other  forms  may  also  be  suffused  with  a  Christian 
spirit.  To  create  a  form  of  social  arrangement,  and  claim 
that  it  is  in  complete  accordance  with  Christianity,  is  to 
identify  Christianity  with  something  that  is  merely  passing. 
Just  as  the  Classical  Economists  were  unconsciously  affected 
in  formulating  their  doctrine  by  the  circumstances  of  their 
own  days,^  so  Christian  moralists  may  be  tempted  to  mould 
their  conception  of  social  duty  on  what  is  requisite  at  one 
particular  time ;    they  are  in  danger  of  ignoring  other 

*  See  above,  p.  168. 


II.]  TEMPORARY  NEEDS  205 

duties  which  are  equally  important  on  the  whole,  but  on 
which  it  seems  unnecessary  to  lay  stress  at  some  givi-n 
period,  so  that  they  temporarily  drop  into  the  background. 
We  may  see,  in  retrospect,  how  the  concentration  of  the 
efforts  of  religious  men  on  one  sort  of  social  evil  in  the 
seventeenth  and  early  eighteenth  century — to  the  neglect 
of  other  kinds  of  mischief — has  tended  to  discredit  Chris- 
tianity itself.  Unemployment  and  idleness  were  the 
characteristic  evils  of  the  seventeentli  century  both  in 
England  and  Scotland  ;  the  great  method  for  introducing 
a  godly,  sober,  and  rigiiteous  life  into  the  community  ap- 
peared to  be  that  of  getting  the  population  to  submit  to 
the  discipline  of  work.  There  were  no  half  measures  in 
the  Scotch  treatment  of  vagrants  according  to  the  Act  of 
1663.^  Capitalists  who  set  up  manufactories  were  em- 
powered to  impress  any  vagrants  and  '  employ  them  for 
their  service  as  they  see  fit '  for  eleven  years,  without  wages 
except  meat  and  clothing.  Good  subjects  were  recom- 
mended to  take  into  their  service  poor  and  indigent 
children,  who  were  to  do  any  task  assigned  them  till  they 
had  attained  the  age  of  thirty,  and  to  be  '  subject  to  their 
master's  correction  and  chastisement  in  all  manner  of 
punishment  (life  and  torture  excepted).'  The  seventeenth- 
century  Puritan  took  a  stern  view  of  the  discipline  which  was 
good  for  children,  so  that  they  might  be  kept  from  form- 
ing habits  of  idleness  and  diifting  into  evil  of  every  kind. 
But,  while  there  was  a  strong  sense  of  the  religious  duty  of 
insisting  on  hard  and  regular  work,  for  the  welfare,  temporal 
and  eternal,  of  the  people  themselves,  there  was  a  complete 
indifference  to  the  need  of  laying  down  or  enforcing  any 
restrictions  as  to  the  employment  of  money.  Capital  was 
much  needed  in  England,  and  still  more  in  Scotland,  for 
developing  the  resources  of  the  country  and  for  starting 
new  enterprises  ;  freedom  for  the  formation  and  invest- 
ment of  capital  seemed  to  the  thoughtful  city  men  of  the 
>  Scot8  Acts,  1663,  c,  52,  re-enacting  1579,  c.  12, 15»7,  c.  39,  and  1617,  c.  10. 


206  SECULARISED  CHRISTIANITY  [ch. 

seventeenth  century,  who  were  mostly  in  sympathy  with 
Puritanism,  the  best  remedy  for  the  existing  social  evUs. 
They  were  eager  to  get  rid  of  the  restrictions,  imposed  by 
the  '  Pope's  laws,'  ^  which  it  was  possible  to  bring  up  in 
ecclesiastical  courts,  as  well  as  to  be  free  from  efforts  made 
by  the  King's  Council  -  to  bring  home  to  the  employing 
and  mercantile  classes  their  duty  to  the  community.  The 
agitation  against  the  interference  of  the  bishops  in  civil 
affairs,  and  the  triumph  of  Puritanism,  swept  away  all 
traces  of  any  restriction  or  guidance  in  the  employment  of 
money.  In  so  far  as  a  stricter  ecclesiastical  discipline  was 
aimed  at,  or  introduced,  it  had  regard  to  recreation  and  to 
immorality  of  various  kinds,  but  was  at  no  pains  to  interfere 
to  check  the  action  of  the  capitalist  ^  or  to  protect  the 
labourer.  From  the  time  when  the  rise  of  Puritanism 
paralysed  the  action  of  the  Church  and  prevented  her  from 
maintaining  the  influence  she  had  habitually  exerted,*  it 
has  been  plausible  to  say  that  Christian  teaching  appeared 
to  be  brought  to  bear  on  the  side  of  the  rich  and  against  the 
poor.  The  Puritans  were  probably  right  as  to  the  most 
serious  evils  of  the  day,  and  the  economic  means  of  over- 
coming them  ;  they  may  well  have  felt  that  rehgious  duty 
impelled  them  to  the  line  they  took ;  but  the  one-sided  way 
in  which  they  tried  to  exercise  a  practical  influence  has 
undoubtedly  given  excuse  for  attributing  to  religious  men 
a  one-sided  view  of  personal  duty. 

(c)  Some  preachers  apparently  look  at  the  Christianising 
of  society  as  if  it  were  a  very  simple  thing,  which  could  be 
carried  through  in  a  rough-and-ready  fashion  without  any 
deep  and  far-reaching  changes,  if  only  men  would  set  about 
it.     It  seems  to  be  assumed  that  the  existing  machinery 

1  See  above,  p.  128. 

2  Grmoth  of  English  Industry  and  Commerce  in  Modern  Times,  ii.  pp,  50, 
206. 

»  The  Edinburgh  proclamation  against  dealing  in  goods  obtained  by  piracy 
may  perhaps  be  regarded  as  an  exception  (Davidson  and  Gray,  Scottish 
Staple  at  Veere,  p.  56). 

♦  Gospel  of  Work,  pp.  134136. 


II.]      THE  SENTIMENT  OF  BROTHERHOOD      207 

of  society  would  go  on,  if  doses  of  Christian  sentiment  m  ere 
applied  as  a  lubricating  oil  to  reduce  friction,  and  Christian 
altruism  was  turned  on  as  the  driving  force.  But  existing 
society  cannot  be  modified  in  this  fashion  ;  it  has  for  its 
foundation  the  maintenance  of  private  property ;  and 
exclusive  rights  are  not  obviously  consistent  with  the  sense 
uf  brotherhood.  The  force  which  operates,  under  all  forms 
of  competition,  is  private  interest.^  It  is  not  possible  to 
lit  a  new  force  to  the  mechanism  of  society,  in  the  easy 
manner  in  which  steam-power  may  be  substituted  for 
water-power  in  a  mill.  The  sense  of  brotherhood  would  not 
necessarily  be  an  efifective  substitute  for  the  force  of  self- 
interest,  the  machinery  would  have  to  be  recast  throughout. 
The  force  of  self-interest  induces  men  to  accumulate  for 
future  needs,  and  hence  it  is  possible  to  have  the  advantage 
of  a  large  capital  available  for  society.-  It  is  not  clear 
that  the  sense  of  brotherhood  would  provide  as  effectually 
for  the  accumulation  of  this  main  factor  in  production. 
Further,  the  play  of  self-interest  provides  an  effective 
discipline  against  many  forms  of  idleness  and  waste,  though 
one  that  is  sometimes  harsh.  It  is  not  clear  that  the  sense 
of  brotherhood  would  afford  opportunity  for  the  exercise 
of  discipline  at  all.  Human  society,  with  no  capital  and 
little  discipline,  exists  already  among  savage  tribes,  where 
the  sense  of  kinship  and  brotherhood  is  strong ;  but  it  is 
not  necessarily  more  Christian  than  human  society  among 
civilised  races.  While  it  is  not  clear  that  the  sense  of 
brotherhood  can  be  harnessed,  so  as  to  do  routine  and 
regular  work  and  to  maintain  material  prosperity,  there  is 
danger  of  forgetting  that  it  does  not  maintain  itself,  but 
needs  to  be  fostered  and  purified.  In  so  far  as  the  sense 
of  brotherhood  is  merely  social,  and  depends  on  a  common 
life  in  similar  conditions,  it  is  not  necessarily  elevating  ; 
mutual  dependence  does  not  create  an  atmosphere  which 
will  necessarily  penetrate  within  and  mould  character. 
»  See  »boTe,  p.  149.  »  See  abote,  p.  26. 


208  SECULARISED  CHRISTIANITY  [ch. 

There  can  be  no  efEective  reconstruction  of  society  which 
does  not  fall  back  on  the  personal  influence  of  personal 
character,  and  no  wholesale  methods  have  yet  been  devised 
for  achieving  this  result.^ 

{d)  Those  who  aim  at  introducing  a  Christianised  society 
are  inchned  to  lay  down  laws  as  rules  for  action  in  this 
society ;  the  Sermon  on  the  Mount  is  quoted  as  if  it  con- 
stituted a  code  of  such  laws,  and  it  is  insisted  that  the 
'  Christian  law  should  be  supreme  in  all  the  relations  of  life.' 
It  is  possible  to  read  a  meaning  into  this  phrase  in  which  it 
is  true,  for  it  may  be  thought  of  as  a  principle  for  personal 
action  and  for  controlling  individual  self-will ;  but  the  appeal 
to  a  law  more  naturally  suggests  the  idea  of  a  law  of  society, 
to  be  enforced  on  others  as  well ;  and  law  in  this  sense  can 
only  deal  properly  with  external  acts.  Morality  becomes 
superficial  when  it  ceases  to  be  personal :  we  may  all  deplore 
the  evils  of  society,  but  there  is  great  difficulty  in  ascribing 
blame  to  any  individuals.  It  is  easy  to  indulge  in  rhetoric 
about  the  injustice  of  society,  and  to  denounce  certain 
classes  in  the  community  ;  but  such  impersonal  confession 
is  only  an  anodyne  to  the  conscience.  To  propose  to  make 
reparation  at  the  expense  of  other  people,  for  what  we 
deplore  as  wrong,  is  mere  hypocrisy ;  if  the  maxims  of  the 
Sermon  on  the  Mount  are  not  taken  as  personal,  there  is  a 
retrogression  from  the  point  of  view  of  Christian  to  that  of 
Jewish  morality.  Christians  are  not  to  be  content  with 
judging  merely  by  external  acts  in  regard  to  any  duties ; 
it  was  the  fundamental  error  of  the  Pharisees  that  they 
thought  so  much  of  external  compUance  and  not  of  the 
inner  disposition  ;  the  legal  habit  of  mind  is  inadequate  to 
Christian  requirements.  On  the  other  hand,  it  is  only  in 
the  case  of  our  own  personal  lives  that  we  have  adequate 
knowledge  of  the  grounds  and  reason  for  any  decision  ;  the 
precise  motives  which  may  have  actuated  other  people  in 
their  conduct  are  not  really  known  to  us.  We  are  none  of 
1  See  above,  p.  20 ;  Hocialism  and  Christianity,  p.  22. 


II.]  THE  SUPREMACY  OF  CHRISTIAN  LAW  209 

us  Justified  in  assuming  that  we  can  read  through  a  man's 
external  act  and  attribute*  ti  motive  to  him  with  any 
certainty.  We  caimot  pretend  to  apply  the  Christian '  law ' 
to  other  people's  lives,  and  approve  or  condemn  them  by 
this  test ;  words  of  warning  iiave  been  spoken  against  such 
presumption,  '  Judge  not  that  ye  be  not  judged.'  The 
attempt  to  interpret  the  ground  of  other  people's  actions  is 
only  likely  to  be  an  unconscious  revelation  of  dominant 
motives  in  our  own  minds. 

\Mien  the  maxims  of  the  Sermon  on  the  Mount  are  treated 
as  rules  by  which  we  attempt  to  gauge  the  Christian 
character  of  other  people,  there  is  almost  certain  to  be 
misapprehension  ;  and  it  is  easy  to  interpret  the  most  sound 
and  considerate  conduct  as  a  disregard  of  the  rule  of  love  to 
our  neighbours.  A  parish  clergyman  may  be  appealed  to 
to  pay  the  arrears  of  rent  of  a  house  painter  and  his  wife  ; 
he  knows  that  the  man  is  a  confirmed  idler  and  the  woman 
a  very  unsatisfactory  charwoman  ;  he  is  told  that  if  he 
does  not  pay  a  pound  to  the  landlord  at  once  they  will  be 
turned  out.  It  might  be  simple  to  pay  the  money  from 
the  poor  fund  at  his  disposal  and  thus  to  avoid  the  irritation 
that  will  be  caused  ;  but  his  sense  of  duty  as  a  trustee  for 
the  administration  of  Christian  alms  may  lead  him  to  take 
another  view.  He  may  feel  that,  under  the  circumstances, 
the  giving  of  the  money  will  be  a  direct  condoning  of  idle- 
ness on  the  part  of  the  house  painter  and  his  wife,  and  that 
if  he  gave  this  money  to  these  people  it  would  be  indirectly 
an  encouragement  to  the  less  reputable  neighbours,  and  a 
relative  discouragement  to  the  poor  who  were  waging  an 
uphill  fight.  He  decides  that  he  will  not  respond  to  this 
appeal,  and  pay  the  arrears  of  rent ;  the  house  painter, 
who  looks  at  the  external  act,  complains  that  this  professing 
Cliristian,  who  has  a  good  house  of  his  own,  allows  a  poor 
neighbour  to  be  turned  into  the  street ;  he  can  (j[Uote  the 
maxim,  '  Give  to  him  that  asketh  thee,'  and  prove  triumph- 
antly that  tliis  man  does  not  practise  what  he  preaches ; 

o 


210  SECULARISED  CHRISTIANITY  [ch 

but  when  account  is  taken  of  the  motives,  it  appears  that 
the  refusal  of  the  clergyman  was  actuated  by  a  desire 
to  do  his  duty  as  a  pastor  among  his  people.  As 
Maurice  ^  puts  it :  'If  it  has  been  proved  by  criminal 
statistics,  or  by  poHtical  economy,  that  indiscriminate 
almsgiving  is  most  mischievous,  that  proof  determines  this 
application  of  the  Sermon  on  the  Mount ;  it  shows  what 
would  be  an  unbrotherly  act.' 

The  judgments  we  pronounce  may  be  mistaken,  even  in 
cases  where  the  individual  is  perfectly  free  to  act  in  one  way 
or  in  the  other,  but  in  almost  all  problems  of  economic  life 
the  individuals  concerned  are  not  wholly  free  to  act  as  seems 
best  in  their  own  eyes.-  Before  condemning  any  particular 
act,  and  still  more  before  attributing  a  wholly  unchristian 
motive  for  that  act,  we  are  bound  to  consider  how  far  there 
has  been  any  practical  freedom  of  choice  in  the  matter. 
There  is  always  a  temptation  to  waive  this  preliminary 
question  aside  ;  where  there  is  grave  wrong  done,  we  are 
eager  to  find  some  one  on  whom  to  fasten  the  responsibility 
for  the  wrong  ;  but  in  our  complex  society  it  is  not  possible 
to  bring  home  responsibility  in  a  rough-and-ready  fashion. 
The  society  in  which  we  hve  is  dominated  by  the  physical 
conditions  of  increasing  numbers  and  the  difficulty  of  pro- 
curing subsistence  ;  much  hardship  is  inevitable  ;  no  one 
man  and  no  class  of  men  is  directly  responsible  for  it,  and  no 
one  man  or  class  of  men  is  able  to  remedy  it ;  the  forces 
that  bring  it  about  are  too  powerful,  and  cannot  be  re- 
strained by  any  one  individual.  When  a  man  is  blamed 
for  harsliness,  which  has  arisen  in  connection  with  his 
action,  we  are  bound  to  consider  how  far  he  was  free  to  act 
in  any  other  way,  before  we  condemn  him,  or  how  far  ho 
felt  himself  forced  to  act  in  opposition  to  his  own  wishes, 
and  with  a  heavy  heart.  An  employer  is  the  agent  through 
whom  the  pressure,  due  perhaps  to  some  incident  on  the 
other  side  of  the  globe,  makes  itself  felt ;  he  is  not  always 

I  Social  Morality,  p.  457.  ^  See  above,  p.  117. 


II.]  TRANSFERRING  RESPONSIBILITY  211 

acting  out  of  gratuitous  love  of  tyranny.  When  a  man 
believes  that,  in  certain  conditions  of  business,  it  is  necessary 
to  dismiss  hands,  or  to  lower  wages,  the  decision  to  take 
that  step  may  be  entirely  impersonal,  and  have  reference 
to  the  welfare  of  the  employees  in  the  long  run.  People 
are  unchristian  who,  because  of  the  hardships  which  they 
see  and  understand,  denounce  the  employer  as  a  monster 
of  greed,  while  they  do  not  know  how  the  circumstances  of 
the  case  presented  themselves  to  his  mind,  and  the  diffi- 
culty he  may  have  had  in  weighing  what  was  expedient 
for  the  district  as  a  whole — not  merely  for  himself. 
Attempts  to  treat  social  problems  by  applying  a  supposed 
Christian  law  to  the  conduct  of  other  people  can  never 
afford  an  accurate  diagnosis  of  the  mischief  in  existing 
society,  nor  useful  suggestions  for  its  improvement.  Such 
attempts  will  more  probably  result  in  uncharitable  judg- 
ment and  railing  accusation. 


3.  Non-Christian  Methods  of  Reform 

(a)  There  has  been  during  the  last  half  century  an 
immensely  increased  activity  in  regard  to  many  matters  of 
social  reform  ;  and  it  is  most  desirable  that  interest  should 
be  aroused  and  kept  alive  in  all  that  tends  to  the  improve- 
ment of  national  life,  to  the  diffusing  of  a  higher  standard  of 
comfort,  and  to  the  introducing  of  conditions  that  are  more 
favourable  to  culture.  From  the  strictly  religious  point 
of  view,  it  must  be  recognised  that  gross  and  brutalising 
surroundings  are  actively  hostile  to  spiritual  influence  of 
any  kind,  and  present  most  serious  obstacles,  which  we 
must  desire  to  remove  ;  and  from  the  merely  humanitarian 
standpoint,  the  same  desire  for  removing  hindrances  to  the 
elevating  of  character  must  also  be  felt.  The  end  in  view 
is  undoubtedly  good,  but  there  may  be  question  as  to  the 
wisdom  of  the  means  which  find  favour  at  present.  The 
methods  of  social  reform  which  are  most  in  vogue  in  the 


212  SECULARISED  CHRISTIANITY  [cH. 

present  day  are  non-Christian  in  character ;  they  do  not 
rely  on  the  effect  of  holding  up  a  high  ideal  and  on  the 
attraction  it  exercises  on  men  personally  ;  they  aim  in- 
stead at  compelling  men  to  do  at  least  a  minimum  of  duty, 
and  at  trying  to  stamp  out  evil,  or  hindering  men  from 
falling  into  it.  These  may  be  very  right  and  wise  things  for 
the  State  to  attempt,  and  for  philanthropists  to  try  and 
carry  out,  but  they  are  not  specifically  Christian.  They 
are  rightly  described  as  non-Christian  ;  they  are  not  an 
appropriate  theme  for  Christian  preaching,  nor  are  they 
properly  regarded  as  Christian  work  ;  and  though  they  may 
be  pursued  like  other  secular  duties  from  Christian  motives 
and  in  a  Christian  spirit,  there  is,  nevertheless,  a  danger 
of  their  being  advocated  in  an  unchristian  spirit. 

There  has  been  a  great  increase  in  the  amount  of  State 
compulsion  in  regard  to  many  matters ;  as,  for  instance, 
the  notification  of  disease,  the  insistence  on  vaccination — 
even  with  the  relaxation  which  took  place  in  1898, — and 
still  more  the  introduction  of  compulsory  elementary 
education.  These  appear  to  be  most  desirable  objects  ; 
but  it  is  clear  that  the  action  of  the  State  is  directed  simply 
to  the  attainment  of  certain  results  without  reference  to  the 
effect  on  the  character  of  the  human  agents  concerned ;  as  the 
sphere  of  operation  of  this  kind  of  State  action  extends, 
there  will  consequently  be  less  and  less  opportunity  for  the 
development  of  character.  Granting  that  it  is  desirable 
that  all  the  children  in  the  community  should  be  able  to 
read  and  write,  and  that  this  result  can  best  be  secured  by 
compelling  parents  to  send  their  children  to  school,  the 
result  has  probably  been  attained  at  the  expense  of  a 
certain  loss  of  character.  A  very  large  number  of  parents 
did  realise  that  it  was  their  duty  to  send  their  children 
to  school,  and  took  some  pains  in  selecting  what  they 
thought  the  best  school,  either  because  of  the  character  of 
the  teaching  or  of  the  children  who  frequented  it.  Since 
the  system  of  compulsion  has  come  in,  the  parent  is  apt  to 


II.]  TRANSFERRING  RESPONSIBILITY  213 

think  that  he  has  done  all  that  he  need  when  the  child  h&s 
received  the  education  on  which  the  State  insists,  and  he  has 
had  no  occasion  to  exercise  thought  on  behalf  of  his  child 
in  respect  of  education,  or  to  interest  himself  in  it  in  any 
way  ;  it  has  betn  taken  out  of  his  hands.  The  instruction 
of  the  children  may  go  on  better  ;  but  the  opportunity  for 
the  exercise  of  personal  parental  duty  is  curtailed,  and  thus 
the  education  of  the  parent  in  practising  a  duty  towards  his 
children  suffers  ;  he  has  less  chance  of  learning  to  be  inter- 
ested in  their  welfare,  and  continuing  to  try  to  promote  it. 
When  this  duty  becomes  a  matter  of  State  compulsion,  and 
not  of  individual  action,  there  is  a  danger  that  the  sense  of 
parental  responsibility  may  be  lowered.  In  the  same  way, 
the  transference  of  the  duty  of  feeding  children  to  school 
authorities  is  quite  likely  to  have  the  result  that  the 
children  are  better  fed,  on  more  wholesome  and  better 
cooked  food,  and  this  is  a  definite  gain  ;  but  it  is  attained 
at  the  cost  of  diminishing  the  sense  of  parental  responsi- 
bility, and  this  is  a  loss  which  should  not  be  forgotten. 

We  have  experience  of  long  standing  to  show  how  a  duty 
changes  its  character  when  it  is  done  under  State  compul- 
sion. For  some  time  before  the  Norman  Conquest  the  duty 
of  paying  a  tithe  of  the  produce  of  the  soil  for  religious 
objects  was  insisted  upon  by  civil  authorities  ;  and  in 
Angevin  times  the  last  element  of  voluntariness  was  ex- 
cluded, as  no  choice  was  left  to  the  proprietor  in  regard 
to  the  question  to  what  rehgious  purpose  his  tithe  should 
be  paid.^  It  became  a  tax,  much  like  any  other  tax,  when 
the  obligation  could  be  enforced  under  civil  sanctions.  In 
the  same  way,  the  contributions  for  the  poor  changed  their 
character  in  Elizabethan  times  ;  they  ceased  to  be  volun- 
tary alms,  and  became  a  poor  rate  which  could  be  enforced 
by  authority.  The  results  aimed  at  were  secured  in  both 
cases  ;  provision  was  made  in  every  part  of  England  for 
the  maintenance  of  religious  worship  and  ordinances  ;  and 

1  Cure  of  Souls,  p.  44. 


214  SECULARISED  CHRISTIANITY  [ch. 

the  Elizabethan  system  seems  to  have  been  wonderfully 
successful  in  dealing  with  the  problem  of  pauperism  as  it 
existed  in  the  sixteenth  century.^  But  in  neither  case  was 
there  any  educative  effect  on  the  persons  who  contributed, 
so  far  as  religious  and  moral  character  was  concerned.  The 
imposition  of  a  tax  inclines  a  man  to  think  he  has  done  all 
his  duty  when  he  has  paid  it,  and  leaves  him  disinclined  to 
do  more  ;  whereas  the  interest  that  is  roused,  by  trying  to 
do  a  little  voluntarily,  may  increase  and  lead  to  the  forma- 
tion of  a  more  generous  view  of  his  obligations. 

From  a  strictly  Christian  standpoint,  the  trend  in  favour 
of  transferring  responsibility  to  the  State  must  be  viewed 
with  regret,  even  though  the  results  aimed  at  are  well  worth 
trying  for.  But  personal  duty,  and  the  fostering  of  higher 
ideals  of  personal  duty,  is  the  special  sphere  where  Christian 
influence  has  an  opportunity  of  coming  into  play.  With 
every  increase  of  compulsion,  this  sphere  is  curtailed  ;  there 
is  less  field  for  the  play  of  the  personal  will,  and  for  the 
effort  to  do  personal  duties  ;  and  the  region  within  which 
the  power  of  Christianity  operates  most  directly  and 
forcibly  is  correspondingly  reduced. 

{b)  In  regard  to  compulsory  education,  a  minimum  of 
duty  can  be  insisted  upon  ;  but  there  are  many  other 
matters  about  which  it  is  impossible  to  insist  on  any 
external  performance  of  a  moral  duty,  or  to  define  any 
minimum  of  duty  which  ought  to  be  enforced  from  all. 
In  such  cases  the  attempt  to  force  men  to  do  their  duty 
must  be  abandoned,  and  external  pressure  can  only  be 
brought  to  bear  by  the  State  to  limit  or  to  put  down  what 
is  bad.  Voluntary  action  in  regard  to  morals  may  be 
easily  diverted  to  follow  too  closely  on  the  same  line. 
There  are  voluntary  societies  for  the  promotion  of  tem- 
perance, but  insensibly  their  activities  have  come  to  be 
directed  against  the  evil  of  intemperance  in  one  of  its 
forms.     Spenser,  in  his  Faery  Queene,  regarded  drunken- 

1  Orowth  of  English  Indtistry  and  Commerce  in  Modern  Times,  ii.  p.  50. 


II.]  ABSTINENCE  FROM  THINGS  EVIL  215 

ness  as  a  form  of  bodily  self-indulgence,  and  made  it 
characteristic  of  the  antagonists  of  chastity  :  wliile  the 
knight  of  temperance  is  the  representative  of  a  well-ordered 
life,  from  which  all  exaggerations  of  thought  and  speech 
are  excluded.  In  our  day  the  classification  of  the  virtues 
has  been  much  altered,  and  such  a  change  could  hardly 
have  taken  place  unconsciously,  if  attention  had  been 
increasingly  given  to  the  Christian  duty  of  trying  to 
foster  what  is  good,  as  distinguished  from  merely  sup- 
pressing what  is  evil.  When  the  nature  of  temperance  as 
a  virtue  is  obscured,  the  difficulty  of  trying  to  cultivate 
it  is  increased. 

When  activity  is  thus  diverted  from  the  positive  aim 
of  trying  to  set  forth  the  good,  to  the  negative  effort  of 
stamping  out  evil,  the  moral  life  suffers.  Instead  of  aiming 
at  realising  a  high  ideal  of  conduct,  we  are  tempted  to  be 
content  with  avoiding  some  particular  act,  and  treating 
that  as  a  criterion  of  a  virtuous  or  of  an  evil  life.  There  is 
a  danger  of  fixing  on  anything  in  the  world,  such  as  alcohol, 
as  being  inherently  evil ;  and  in  treating  abstinence  from 
this  particular  thing  as  a  definite  mark  of  virtue.  Much 
morality,  Jewish,  Buddhist,  and  Mohammedan,  has  tended 
to  place  right  and  wrong  in  the  things  outside  us,  which 
can  be  roughly  classified  as  good  and  evil ;  but  Christianity 
directs  attention  to  the  inner  disposition,  as  that  which 
consecrates  the  use  of  the  thing,  or  turns  what  is  in  itself 
indifferent  into  an  instrument  for  good  or  for  evil. 
\\lien  the  Christian  conception  of  the  importance  of  the 
inner  disposition  is  lost  sight  of,  the  personal  life  will  suffer. 
When  externals  are  over-rated,  there  is  a  danger  of  self- 
consciousness  and  of  setting  oneself  up  as  an  example  of 
some  form  of  self-denial ;  and  this  affectation  is  futile 
in  those  cases  where  from  taste  and  temperament  the 
abstinence  involves  no  self-denial.  That  it  is  important  to 
avoid  external  acts  which  are  wrong  is  true  enough  ;  it  was 
right  for  the  Pharisees  to  be  strict  about  detecting  breacher: 


J16  SECULARISED  CHRISTIANITY  [ch. 

of  God's  law  and  endeavouring  to  render  it  effective  in  all 
the  details  of  life  ;  but  too  exclusive  attention  to  external 
conduct,  unbalanced  by  constant  care  to  render  the  inner 
life  consonant  to  the  will  of  God,  is  a  dangerous  habit 
of  mind  into  which  Christian  men  in  all  ages  have  been 
tempted  to  fall. 

(c)  The  step  from  that  which  is  non-Christian  in  morality 
to  that  wliich  is  unchristian  need  not  be  a  very  long  one. 
There  are  two  sides  from  which  we  may  see  that  efforts  to 
concentrate  attention  upon  evil,  and  put  it  down,  are  quite 
alien  from  the  spirit  of  Christ's  religion. 

A  crusade  against  evils  of  any  kind,  which  exist  in  society, 
involves  those  who  take  part  in  it,  in  habitual  thought  about 
the  evil  they  deplore,  in  continual  efforts  to  trace  out  its 
ramifications,  and  to  make  men  realise  the  horror  of  it. 
But  this  attitude  of  mind  is  unwholesome.  St.  Paul 
definitely  recommends  us  to  think  of  what  is  honest  and  of 
good  report,  and  not  to  be  continually  dwelling  on  what  is 
corrupt  and  corrupting  ;  it  is  well  to  be  simple  concerning 
evil.  This  is  more  especially  true  in  regard  to  sins  of 
impurity  ;  ^  the  indulgence  of  idle  curiosity  is  unwise  ; 
there  are  many  things  in  this  world  that  it  is  quite  un- 
necessary to  know  about,  and  in  regard  to  which  there  can 
be  no  duty  to  diffuse  knowledge.  Attacks  on  corrupt 
literature  may  be  carried  on  so  as  to  advertise  it ;  and  it  is 
a  duty  for  Christians  who  are  living  in  an  evil  world  to 
try  to  keep  their  own  minds  pure  so  far  as  may  be. 

Again,  a  crusade  against  evil  involves  the  use  of  strong 
language  and  vivid  colours  ;  revolutions  are  not  made  with 
rose  water,  and  the  attack  on  what  is  plainly  mischievous 
seems  to  be  an  occasion  when  a  man  may  do  well  to  show 
that  he  is  angry.  But  this,  again,  is  unchristian ;  those 
Avho  are  most  clear  that  they  are  striving  to  serve  God,  by 
denouncing  certain  forms  of  selfishness,  or  greed,  or  vice, 
have  much  need  to  be  on  their  guard  lest  they  are  serving 
1  Jeremy  Taylor,  Holy  Living. 


n.]  AGITATION  AGAINST  EVIL  £17 

Him  by  unhallowed  means.  The  denunciation  of  evil 
almost  necessarily  involves  the  accusation  of  certain 
persons  as  guilty  ;  and  in  using  exaggerated  language,  or  in 
attributing  evil  motives,  there  is  serious  danger  of  bearing 
false  witness  against  a  neighbour.  The  exaggeration  is 
imprudent  as  a  matter  of  policy  ;  it  discredits  the  agitation 
with  which  it  is  associated.  But  it  is  difficult  even  to  make 
unexaggerated  and  truthful  accusations  in  a  Christian 
fashion  :  the  Christian  principle  is  to  make  the  best  of  men, 
in  the  hope  of  calling  out  the  latent  good  that  may  be  in 
them.  '  Charity  covers  a  multitude  of  sins,'  and  there  are 
few  Christian  men  who  are  so  entirely  innocent  of  all  offence 
that  they  have  a  right  to  take  up  stones  and  cast  them, 
even  at  a  neighbour  who  has  gone  utterly  wrong.  Many 
publicans,  for  instance,  are  at  pains  to  keep  their  houses 
respectable  ;  and  wholesale  denunciations  of  the  class  only 
tend  to  discourage  those  who  are  trying  to  conduct  their 
business  rightly  ;  while  the  temptation  to  recrimination  is 
very  strong.  Those  who  are  without,  have  a  keen  sense 
for  noting  inconsistencies  on  the  part  of  professing  Cliris- 
tians.  The  unchristian  elements  in  agitations  against 
particular  forms  of  vice  are  only  too  likely  to  be  made 
the  occasion  for  disparaging  religion  altogether  :  the  world 
at  large  is  not  prepared  to  make  allowance  in  this  matter, 
or  to  distinguish  between  the  secularised  Christianity  of 
the  day  and  the  Christianity  of  Christ. 


218  THE  CHEISTIANITY  OF  CHRIST  [cu. 


CHAPTER  III 

THE  CHRISTIANITY   OF   CHRIST 

(a)  In  regard  to  all  questions  as  to  the  duties  of  Christian 
men  in  any  place  and  in  any  age,  there  is  only  one  court  of 
appeal.  We  are  bound  to  inquire  into  the  mind  of  Christ  as 
it  is  set  before  us  in  His  teaching,  and  also  in  His  personal 
example.  We  need  not  fear  that  we  are  going  far  astray 
if  both  lines  of  inquiry  conduce  to  the  same  result. 

The  main  body  of  Christ's  teaching  in  regard  to  social 
duties  is  to  be  found  in  the  Sermon  on  the  Mount ;  it  is  to 
this  discourse,  above  all  others,  that  appeal  is  made  by 
those  who  advocate  the  claims  of  Christianity  as  a  Social 
gospel.^  Christ's  discourses  do  inculcate  brotherliness,  and 
contain  teaching  on  many  of  the  duties  of  ordinary  life. 
But  a  very  httle  consideration  will  enable  us  to  see  that  our 
Lord's  teaching  is  not  merely  humanitarian.  It  takes  all 
its  force  and  effectiveness  from  the  manner  in  which  the 
thought  of  the  Eternal  God,  the  Father  of  all,  is  brought  to 
bear  upon  everyday  conduct.  Tlie  desire  to  set  forth  the 
goodness  of  God  is  the  motive  for  right  action  :  '  Let  your 
light  so  shine  before  men,  that  they  seeing  your  good  works 
may  glorify  your  Father  which  is  in  heaven.'  The  thought 
of  that  Heavenly  Father  sets  the  standard  at  which  men 
are  to  aim,  '  Be  ye  therefore  perfect,  even  as  your  Father 
which  is  in  heaven  is  perfect.'  It  is  to  the  Father  that  men 
must  look  for  the  reward  of  all  that  is  good.  '  Thy  Father 
which  seeth  in  secret.  Himself  shall  reward  thee  openly.' 

1  See  aljove,  p.  20S. 


III.]  CHRIST  AS  A  PREACHER  219 

The  whole  of  this  code  of  brotherly  and  neighbourly  conduct 
is  built  upon  a  religious  basis  ;  and  religion  is  a  personal 
thing.  The  direct  appeal  is  for  personal  devotion  to  God, 
though  indirect  results  in  benefit  to  society  may  be  looked 
for  too. 

The  Sermon  on  the  Mount  is  throughout  a  protest 
against  the  inadequacy  of  a  morality  that  is  chiefly,  or 
merely,  external,  and  is  expressed  in  and  approved  by  a 
conventional  social  system.  The  Beatitudes  insist  on  the 
blessedness  of  those  who  are  poor  in  spirit  and  meek  and 
pure  in  heart ;  this  praise  of  inner  dispositions  and  graces 
sets  the  tone  of  the  whole.  We  are  taught  that  obedience 
to  God's  will  explains  and  amplifies  the  Mosaic  rules  for 
compliance  with  His  commandments ;  and  that  iimer 
disposition  is  the  primary  and  important  tiling  in  such 
duties  as  prayer  and  almsgiving.  Tlie  whole  idea  of 
Jewish  morality,  which  had  aimed  at  securing  a  divinely 
ordered  society,  is  abandoned,  and  the  Lord's  teaching 
appeals  to  the  individual  heart  and  conscience.  The  man 
who  hears  His  words  and  does  them  is  steadfast  in  his 
course  through  life  ;  and  there  was  frequent  insistence  on 
this  view  as  to  the  importance  of  the  inner  life  in  His 
subsequent  preacliing  :  it  is  the  evil  which  is  in  man's 
heart,  and  finds  expression  in  his  thoughts  or  words  or 
deeds,  that  really  defiles  him. 

The  contrast  in  this  respect  between  Christ's  teaching 
and  that  of  Judaism  comes  out  especially  in  regard  to 
another  point — the  attitude  which  is  taken  towards  the 
rich.  There  had  been  a  good  deal  of  denunciation  of  the 
rich  in  old  times,  for  their  oppression  ;  and  St.  James 
carries  on  this  tradition  in  his  scathing  rebukes.  Among  the 
disciples,  however,  there  was  also  a  tendency  to  view  the 
rich  favourably,  especially  if  they  were  generous  in  the  use 
of  their  goods  ;  in  any  case,  they  were  under  little  tempta- 
tion to  set  aside  propriety  of  conduct  and  external  respect- 
ability ;  it  is  the  poor  man  who  is  most  readily  tempted  to 


220  THE  CHRISTIANITY  OF  CHRIST  [ch. 

crimes  that  shock  society.  But  our  Lord  neither  passes  a 
specially  lenient  judgment  on  the  rich,  because  of  their 
external  correctness,  nor  denounces  them  for  merely  being 
rich  :  He  fastens  on  the  true  inwardness  of  the  evil.  The 
rich  are  specially  exposed  to  the  danger  of  God-forgetful- 
ness,  and  of  concentrating  their  attention  and  interest  on 
earthly  things  :  but  it  is  the  covetousness  or  the  arrogance, 
the  spite  or  the  pride  which  are  engendered  by  a  love  of 
earthly  things,  that  is  the  evil.  '  Ye  cannot  serve  God  and 
mammon  '  :  but  the  poor  man,  who  takes  anxious  thought, 
and  whose  mind  is  absorbed  in  earthly  wants,  had  need  of 
this  warning,  as  well  as  the  rich  man,  whose  cares  and 
anxieties  would  divert  his  mind  from  spiritual  things. 
Riches  are,  according  to  His  teaching,  not  so  much  an  evil 
as  a  danger,  because  they  are  so  absorbing.  '  How  hardly 
shall  a  rich  man  enter  into  the  kingdom  of  heaven,'  not 
because  of  the  external  accident  that  he  is  rich,  but  because 
of  the  danger  that  he  will  trust  in  his  riches. 

But  more  than  this ;  the  Parable  of  the  Tares  is  a 
warning  for  all  time  against  the  mistake  of  looking  on  the 
kingdom  of  heaven  as  an  earthly  realm  from  which  evil  is 
to  be  eradicated.  The  breach  with  Judaism  is  complete  ; 
'  Thou  shalt  not  suffer  a  witch  to  live  '  was  an  appropriate 
maxim  for  an  earthly  theocracy.  But  Christ  teaches  not 
merely  tolerance  of  things  that  we  do  not  like,  but  the 
toleration  of  that  which  is  plainly  and  certainly  evil. 
The  tares  were  there  ;  they  were  thoroughly  bad,  an  enemy 
had  sowed  them  ;  they  were  destined  to  be  burned  at  last. 
But  they  were  not  to  be  rooted  up  by  human  hands,  lest  the 
wheat  should  be  injured  too.  No  movement  which  begins 
with  drastic  efforts  to  purify  society,  in  the  hope  of  re- 
moving contamination  from  individuals,  is  consistent  with 
the  teaching  of  this  parable. 

(b)  The  aspect  of  our  Lord's  ministry  which  attracted 
most  attention  at  the  time,  and  has  impressed  the  readers 
of  the  Gospels  in  all  ages  very  vividly,  was  His  work  in 


111.]  CHRIST'S  HABITUAL  PRACTICE  221 

connection  with  the  hcaHng  of  diseases,  and  the  satisfying 
of  human  hunger  by  the  feeding  of  the  multitude.  These 
mighty  works,  and  the  immediate  rehef  they  afforded, 
were  never  done  for  their  own  sake  ;  to  our  Lord's  mind 
they  were  entirely  subsidiary  to  the  spiritual  aims  of  His 
ministry.^  It  was  His  aim  that  the  manifestations  He 
gave  of  divine  power  in  the  physical  sphere  should  force 
men  to  realise  that  God  was  indeed  in  the  midst  of  them, 
and  to  turn  with  all  their  hearts  to  the  God  who  had  so 
wonderfully  intervened  in  their  behalf.  But  for  the  most 
part  they  accepted  the  ph^^sical  boon,  as  all  they  cared  for, 
and  were  not  awakened  by  such  deliverance  to  any  fresh 
sense  of  God's  nearness  and  of  His  care  for  them.  The 
miracle  of  the  feeding  of  the  five  thousand  left  the  multitude 
apathetic  as  to  the  revelation  of  God  wliich  He  had  come 
to  declare,  though  they  were  ready  to  seek  Him  because 
they  did  eat  of  the  loaves  and  were  filled.  Again  and 
again  He  was  unable  to  do  any  mighty  work,  because  it 
was  so  clear  that  the  people  would  not  be  able  to  rise  to  a 
true  appreciation  of  the  character  of  His  mission.  Of  the 
ten  lepers — all  of  whom  had  so  far  relied  on  Him  that  they 
had  started  to  show  themselves  to  the  priest  before  any 
signs  of  healing  appeared — only  one  was  impressed  with  a 
real  sense  of  reverence,  at  divine  condescension  in  healing 
him,  and  returned  to  give  glory  to  God.  At  Nazareth,  He 
could  not  respond  to  the  demand  that  He  should  behave  in 
a  neighbourly  fashion  and  perform  cures  similar  to  those 
which  He  had  effected  in  other  towns  ;  since  they  thought 
of  Him  merely  as  a  wonder-working  neighbour,  the  granting 
of  their  request  would  only  have  been  a  further  obstacle  in 
the  way  of  their  learning  to  appreciate  Him  aright. 

The  object  of  His  healing  was  to  teach  men  to  know  and 

feel  that  God  is  not  far  from  any  one  of  us,  but  is  a  loving 

Father  to   whom   we  can  turn  at  all   times.      The  first 

miracle  was  performed,  not  merely  to  add  to  the  merriment 

1  T.  Farmer  Hall,  Christian  Healing. 


222  THE  CHRISTIANITY  OF  CHRIST  [ch. 

of  a  feast,  but  to  show  forth  the  glory  of  God  :  the  raising 
of  Lazarus  was  accompHshed,  not  merely  to  assuage  sorrow, 
but  that  the  glory  of  God  might  be  manifested.  This 
spiritual  aim  was  directly  present  to  His  mind  all  through 
His  life  ;  there  were  multitudes  who  were  sick  and  suffering 
for  whom  He  did  nothing  at  all ;  if  the  relief  of  physical 
evil  had  been  a  primary  or  even  a  secondary  object  with 
Him,  this  is  inexplicable  ;  the  selection  of  some  sufferers, 
and  reluctance  to  help  generally,  are  unintelligible,  un- 
less we  recognise  that  the  healing  was  not  an  end  at  all 
with  Him,  but  only  a  means  by  which  He  sought  to  bring  a 
sense  of  spiritual  realities  and  spiritual  truths  home  to  the 
sufferers  and  their  friends. 

His  unwillingness  to  take  an  active  part  in  secular  im- 
provement, on  its  own  account  and  for  its  own  sake,  comes 
out  very  strikingly  on  the  occasion  when  He  was  appealed 
to  with  the  request  that  He  would  interfere  with  regard 
to  the  division  of  an  inheritance.  He  disdained  the  part 
of  a  judge  or  an  arbitrator,  and  He  declined  to  interfere. 
It  might  have  been  supposed  that  He  would  have  been 
ready  to  enforce  justice,  if  the  claim  were  good,  or  to  rebuke 
covetousness  if  the  man's  rights  had  been  sufficiently 
recognised.  But  He  simply  waived  it  aside.  The  whole 
dispute  was  about  earthly  things,  and  He  did  not  see  how 
to  use  it  as  a  stepping-stone  to  help  the  disputants  to 
apprehend  spiritual  realities. 

VVTiile  thus  disclaiming  any  mission  to  deal  with  such 
matters,  He  was  careful  to  recognise  the  civil  authorities, 
and  to  show  respect  to  their  office.  There  were  many 
defects  in  the  government  of  the  day,  both  Jewish  and 
Roman  ;  but  He  enjoined  obedience  to  those  who  sate  in 
Moses'  seat ;  and  by  paying  tribute,  He  set  an  example  of 
submission  to  the  demand  of  the  government,  as  being 
at  the  same  time  a  form  of  obedience  to  God.  His  habitual 
practice,  on  one  occasion  after  another,  reinforces  the 
teaching  He  proclaimed  in  the  Sermon  on  the  Mount  and  in 


III.]  THE  CHRISTIAN  COMMISSION  223 

the  parables.  He  had  come  to  set  forth  the  glory  of  God 
and  to  manifest  His  Father's  character  and  will  among 
men  ;  this  was  His  work  ;  in  so  far  as  physical  healing  and 
the  relief  of  suffering  could  conduce  to  this  spiritual  mission 
He  engaged  in  them,  but  they  were  not  things  for  Him  to 
take  upon  Himself  apart  from  the  one  great  object  of  His 
life. 

(c)  Tlie  disciple  is  not  above  his  Master  ;  we  must  beware 
of  criticising  our  Lord's  conception  of  His  mission  as  in- 
adequate, and  of  claiming  that  we  can  supplement  it  by 
developing  new  activities  in  His  name,  when  He  himself 
refused  to  sanction  them.  There  may  be  much  eager  talk 
about  Christianity  and  much  activity  by  professing 
Cliristians  that  He  will  refuse  to  recognise  as  emanating 
from  Himself.  Tlie  Church  can  only  exercise  a  wise 
influence  on  social  problems  by  being  true  to  her  Master, 
and  striving  to  carry  on  His  work  as  He  saw  it,  and  as  He 
committed  it  to  her  charge. 

The  Church  indeed  consists  of  men,  each  of  whom,  as  a 
citizen  of  an  earthly  kingdom,  is  called  upon  to  do  his  political 
duties,  as  well  as  his  other  duties,  in  the  name  of  the  Lord 
Jesus.  For  ordinary  purposes,  in  ordinary  life,  it  may  not 
be  important,  or  even  perhaps  possible,  for  a  man  to  dis- 
tinguish that  wliich  is  incumbent  upon  him  as  a  citizen  of 
an  earthly  realm  from  that  which  is  incumbent  upon  him  as 
a  child  in  the  family  of  God.  But  the  distinction  is  of 
vast  importance  in  regard  to  those  who  are  called  to  office 
and  ministry  in  Christ's  Church.  The  terms  of  their 
commission  lay  down  the  limits  of  what  they  are  to  do  by 
Christ's  authority  ;  they  have  no  commission  to  put  the 
affairs  of  society  right,  or  to  eradicate  the  evils  in  this 
present  naughty  world.  In  the  gospel  of  the  grace  of  God, 
they  have  committed  to  them  the  suprenu'  moans  of 
touching  men  personally,  and  inspiring  them  with  high  but 
practicable  ideals.  This  is  the  grandest  work  to  which  any 
man  can  "give  himself;    and  it  is  a  miserable  thing  if  he 


224  THE  CHRISTIANITY  OF  CHRIST  [ch.  in. 

fails  to  put  his  best  energies  into  this  task,  and  prefers 
instead  to  compete  with  journahsts  and  poKticians  in 
guiding  some  project  for  social  reform.  It  is  to  forsake 
the  fountain  of  life,  and  to  strain  at  accomplishing  some 
apparent  improvement  by  taking  up  implements  that  are 
less  certain  and  less  effective,  even  for  securing  human 
welfare,  than  the  means  of  grace  instituted  by  Christ 
Himself.  In  his  official  capacity,  as  called  to  preach  the 
gospel  of  Christ,  the  minister  is  boiind  to  set  forth  that 
which  is  good  and  to  strive  to  attract  men  personally 
The  Old  Testament  prophetic  office,  with  its  denunciations 
of  evil-doers,  survived  in  St.  John  the  Baptist's  time,  and 
his  bold  rebuking  of  vice  ;  but  it  is  at  all  events  a  very  sub- 
ordinate part  of  the  Christian  minister's  duty,  and  one 
which  is  not  to  be  discharged  in  a  wholesale  fashion  without 
serious  risk  of  alienating  those  whom  it  might  have  been 
possible  to  win.  It  is  needful  to  look  to  the  terms  of 
Christ's  commission,  both  as  to  the  duties  that  are  to  be 
done  and  the  manner  of  doing  them.  He  sent  His  apostles 
on  evangelistic  work,  and  bade  them  administer  the  sacra- 
ments and  exercise  pastoral  care  ;  but  He  did  not  enjoin 
them  to  agitate  for  social  reforms. 

Since  the  task  which  is  given  us  to  do  is  spiritual,  it  can 
only  be  accomplished  by  spiritual  strength  and  through 
spiritual  means.  We  wrestle  not  against  flesh  and  blood, 
but  against  principalities  and  powers.  There  is  need  of 
divine  courage  and  divine  wisdom  ;  the  strange  bustle 
and  confusion  of  modern  life  is  a  constant  call  to  cease 
from  bandying  half-truths,  and  to  seek  for  the  help  of  that 
Divine  Spirit  who  can  clear  our  eyes  from  passion  and 
greed,  and  by  helping  us  to  see  the  various  elements  in 
due  proportion  can  lead  us  into  all  truth. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY  225 


BIBLIOGRAPHY 

Political  Economy. — The  most  recent  English  treatise  on  the 
whole  subject  is  Professor  J,  S.  Nicholson's  Principles  of  Political 
Economy  (1893) ;  Mr.  C.  S.  Devas's  Political  Economy,  in  the 
Stonyhurst  College  Series  (2nd  edition,  1901),  is  an  excellent 
handbook.  The  great  classics  on  the  subject  are  not  out  of  date  : 
Adam  Smith's  Wealth  of  Nations  has  been  admirably  edited  by 
Dr.  E.  Cannan,  and  J.  S.  Mill's  Principles  of  Political  Economy, 
by  Professor  W.  J.  Ashley  (1909).  For  the  literature  of  the 
subject  it  will  be  found  convenient  to  compare  Professor  6. 
Schmoller's  Grundriss  der  allgemeinen  Volkswirtschaftslehre  (6te 
Aufl.  1901). 

Economic  History.  — The  references  in  W.  Cunningham's  Essay  on 
Western  Civilisation  in  its  Economic  Aspects — Vol.  I.  Ancient 
Times  (2nd  ed.  1902),  and  Vol  II.  Mediceval  and  Modem  Times 
(1910) — supply  a  guide  to  much  of  the  literature  of  the  subject. 
More  detailed  information  in  regard  to  English  history  will  be 
found  in  W.  Cunningham's  Growth  of  Engliih  Industry  and 
Commerce — Vol.  I.  Early  and  Middle  Ages  (5th  edition,  1910) ; 
VoL  II.  Modem  Times  (4th  edition,  1907). 

PART  I 

Malthusian  Principle. — The  second  and  subsequent  editions  of 
T.  E.  Malthus's  Essay  on  the  Principh  of  Population  (180.3) 
expound  the  theory  in  a  complete  form.  Compare  also  J.  Bonar, 
Malthus  and  his  Work  (1885).  On  the  evil  of  neo-Malthusian 
proposals  for  the  artificial  limitation  of  births,  compare  C. 
Coppens,  Moral  Principles  and  Medical  Practice,  p.  117  (3rd 
edition,  New  York,  1897),  and  H.  Wegener  {Wir  jungm 
Manner,  1906). 

Law  of  Diminishing  Return.— This  was  formulated  simultaneously 
by  T.  R.  Malthus  (An  Inquiry  into  the  JS'ature  and  Progress  of 
P 


226  BIBLIOGRAPHY 

Rent  (1815)  and  by  Sir  E.  West  (Essay  on  the  Application  oj 
Capital  to  Land).  Compare  Dr.  E.  Cannan  on  the  '  Origin  of  the 
Law  of  Diminishing  Return'  in  Economw  Journal,  ii.  53. 

Socialism. — The  English  followers  of  K.  Marx,  Das  Capital  (2te 
Aufl.  1872),  may  be  conveniently  divided  into  two  groups.  Mr. 
H.  M.  Hyndman  {Economics  of  Socialism,  1896)  insists  that 
justice  demands  the  immediate  reconstruction  of  society.  Pro- 
fessor K.  Pears'm  (Socialism  in  Theory  and  Practice,  1887) 
repudiates  the  demand  thus  made  for  immediate  justice,  and, 
like  Mr.  H.  G.  Wells  (New  Worlds  for  Old,  1908),  advocates 
the  gradual  reconstruction  of  society  on  Socialist  lines. 

Native  Races. — There  are  so  many  conflicting  statements  on  this 
subject  that  it  is  difficult  to  get  reliable  information,  but  refer- 
ence may  be  made  to  the  results  of  the  official  inquiry  in  the 
'Report  from  the  Stlect  Committee  on  Aborigines  (British 
Settlements),'  in  Parliamentary  Papers,  1837,  vii.  1.  See  also 
L.  Alston,  The  White  Man''s  Work  in  Asia  and  Africa  (1907). 

Indian  Manufacture. — On  the  artistic  quality  of  textiles,  metal 
working,  etc.,  compare  Sir  G.  C.  M.  Birdwood's  Industrial  Arts 
of  India  (1880).  The  wisdom  of  English  economic  policy 
towards  India  was  impeached  by  the  late  Mr.  Justice  Ranade  in 
Essays  on  Indian  Economics,  i.  and  iv.  (Calcutta,  1899). 

Civil  Authority. — The  doctrine  of  the  Church  of  England  was 
expressed  in  the  Homilies  (1562),  and  more  fully  discussed 
by  Hooker  (Ecclesiastical  Polity,  1593)  and  Archbishop  Ussher 
(The  Power  communicated  by  God  to  the  Prince,  1661). 

PART  II 

Economic  Functions  of  Government.— Justice  and  Equality  as 
aims  of  governmental  action  are  discussed  by  H.  Sidgwick 
(Principles  of  Political  Economy,  Bk.  iii.,  2,  4,  6,  18)  ;  and  on 
State  Interference  compare  H.  Sidgwick,  Elements  of  Politics, 
chap.  iL,  19(H.  On  the  importance  of  Security  see  the  Duke  of 
Argyll,  The  Unseen  Foundations  of  Society. 

Unemployment.  —  The  discussion  of  the  subject  by  W.  H. 
Beveridge  (Unemployment,  1909)  may  be  usefully  supple- 
mented by  reference  to  the  articles  by  Mr.  H.  Stanley  Jevong 
on  the  '  Causes  of  Unemployment '  in  the  Contemporary  Review^ 


BIBLIOGRAPHY  227 

May,  July,  and  August  1909.      Compare  also  ProfeMor  J.  S 
Nicholson,  A  Project  of  Empire  (1909). 

Wastes  of  Competition. — Compare  Profassor  J.  W.  Jenks,  Trust 
Problem,  1903  ;  also  the  'Progress  of  Socialism  in  England'  in 
tlie  Contemporary  Revieio,  xxxiv.,  January  1879. 

Usury  and  Interest. — For  the  grounds  of  the  medijeval  prohibition, 
and  the  reasons  for  its  breakin<x  down,  see  Professor  W.  J. 
Ashley,  Introduction  to  the  Economic  History  of  England,  Parts 
I.  and  II.  Compare  also  W.  Cunningham,  Use  and  Abuse  of 
Money  (1891). 

Public  Management  of  Business,— On  the  Nationalisation  of 
Land,  see  IT.  George,  Profjicas  and  Poverty  (1885)  ;  also  the 
criticism  by  the  Right  Hon.  A.  J.  Balfour,  entitled,  'Land, 
Land  Reforms,  and  the  Nation,'  in  the  Ivdvdrial  Remuneration 
Conference  Repmt  (188")).  On  tbe  Nationalisation  of  Railways, 
compare  W.  M.  Ackworth  (The  Raihrays  and  the  Traders, 
1891)  and  E.  A.  Pratt  {Railways  and  Nationalisation,  1908). 
The  practice  of  Municipal  Trading  is  criticised  by  the  Hon.  R. 
P.  Porter  {Dangers  of  Municipal  Trading,  1907)  and  Lord 
Avebury  {On  Municipal  and  Natunial  Trading,  1906). 

Classical  School. — The  Principles  of  Political  Ecomomy  (1843),  by 
J.  R.  M'CuUoch — a  man  of  great  learning  and  keen  interest  in 
practical  affairs  —  shows  the  strength  and  the  characteristic 
defects  of  this  group.  Ricardo's  treatment  of  Economics,  as 
developed  by  K.  Mar.t  {Das  Capital),  has  been  the  starting- 
point  of  modern  Socialism  ;  but  Professor  Conner  ('  Introduc- 
tion '  to  Ricardo's  Principles  of  Political  Economy  and  Taxation, 
1891)  contends  that  Ricardo  has  been  much  misunderstood. 

Small  Holdings  and  Allotments.— On  the  conditions  of  business 
success  and  failure,  see  H.  Levy,  Entstehting  und  Riickgang  des 
landvririschaftJichen  Grossbetriebes  in  England  (1904)  ;  also  the 
'Report  on  Commons  Inclosure,'  answer  514  f.,  1207  f.  in  Par- 
liamentary Papers,  1844,  v.,  and  Labour  Commission  Fourth 
Report.  Parliamentary  Papers,  1893-94,  xxxix.  pt.  ii.  283.  Mr. 
Jesse  CoUings  insists  on  tlie  political  and  .social  benefits  of 
a  Peasant  Proprietary  {Land  Kefm-m,  1908)  ;  compare  also 
Baudrillart,  Lts  PopvlaHons  agricohs  d''  la  Frn.in;  iii.  3  (1885). 
On  the  importance  to  the  labouring  poor  of  opportunities  for 


228  BIBLIOGRAPHY 

subsistence  husbandry,  compare  '  Back  to  the  Land  '  in  Economic 
Revieiv,  xvii.,  Oct.  1907.  On  difficulties  of  management,  see 
Parliamentary  Papers  1843,  vii.  ('  Report  on  Allotments'),  and 
1844,  V.  ('Report  on  Inclosure,'  Index  s.v.  Allotments). 
Modem  Social  Ideals. — In  recent  times  the  ideals  which  were 
formerly  regarded  as  merely  Utopian  have  been  widely  adopted 
as  practicable  aims  which  it  is  thought  possible  to  attain 
gradually  with  the  aid  of  science.  Godwin,  by  his  advocacy  of 
equality  as  furnishing  the  best  conditions  for  the  improvement 
of  morality  (Political  Justice,  1793),  and  Comte,  by  promulgat- 
ing the  religion  of  humanity,  have  contributed  to  this  result. 
On  the  range  within  which  positive  scientific  guidance  can  be 
given,  and  on  the  persons  who  are  susceptible  to  it,  compare  K. 
Pearson  (Enthusiasm  of  the  Marlcet  Place  and  of  the  Study, 
1885,  and  The  Moral  Basis  of  Socialism,  1887).  On  the 
philosophic  basis  of  this  teaching,  see  Dr.  E.' Caird,  The  Social 
Philosophy  and  Religion  of  Comte  (1885),  also  W.  Cunningham, 
'Positivism'  in  Path  towards  Knowledge  (1891). 

PART   III 

Christian  Duty  of  "Work. — This  has  been  admirably  treated  by 
I.  Barrow,  Of  Industry  (1693) ;  see  also  W.  Cunningham,  The 
Gospel  of  Work  (1903). 

Christian  Duty  of  Owners  of  Property.— Dr.  G.  Ratzinger,  Die 
Volksivirthschaft  in  ihren  sittlichen  Grundlagen,  cap.  ii.,  1881,  and 
Professor  C.  P6rin,  La  richesse  dans  les  societes  chritiennes, 
1868. 

Christian  Socialism. — This  term  was  used  by  J.  M.  Ludlow,  F.  D. 
Maurice,  and  Charles  Kingsley,  who  tried  to  organise  co-operative 
workshops  in  London  (Tracts  on  Christian  Socialism,  1851. 
See  the  note  in  Mr.  F.  J.  Furnivall's  hand  in  the  British 
Museum  copy,  08275  e.  33)  ;  their  aims  were  wholly  construc- 
tive. The  name  has  been  adopted  by  Dr.  W.  Rauschenbusch 
(Christianity  and  the  Social  Crisis,  1907)  and  others,  who,  while 
retaining  a  Christian  standpoint  individually,  join  with  modern 
Socialists  in  their  destructive  criticism  of  existing  society. 

Puritanism. — The  manner  in  which  Puritan  teaching  helped  to 
build  up  the  character  of  men  of  business  is  discussed  by  G.  v. 
Schulze-Gavernitz,  Britischer  Imperialismus  (1907),  p.  47  f. 


INDEX 


AocuMtTLATlOK,  22,  25,  109, 128, 148, 

161,  207, 
Adaptation,  28. 
Adulteration,  105. 
Africa,  22,  27,  30,  31,  88. 
Agriculture,  6,  38,  40,  84.  100,  144, 

172. 
Alabama  Case,  57. 
Alaska,  88. 

America,  31,  44,  144,  174. 
Central,  29,  40 ;  see  also  lodians, 

United  States. 
Angevins,  127,  213. 
Apprentice,  114. 
Arbitration,  57. 
Arkwright,  R.,  103. 
Army,  52.  56. 
Artisan,  39,  109  f. 
Assimilation,  34  f. 
Assize,  68. 
Assyria,  29. 
Atlantic,  30,  57. 
Augustine,  St.,  17. 
Australia,  44. 

Bacon,  Francis,  60, 174. 
Balance  of  Trade.  162. 
Bank  of  Euirland,  178  n. 
Barbarians,  28,  184. 
Bargains,  Hard,  105. 
Barter,  24. 
Beatitudes,  219. 
Bedford.  Duke  of,  138,  145. 
Benedictines,  184. 
Birkenhead,  140. 


Black  Death,  105. 
Bloomabury,  145. 
Board  of  Trade,  108. 

of  Local  Government,  129. 

Brings,  Messrs.,  131. 
Britons,  38. 

Brotherhood,  163, 182,  207. 
Buddhist,  215. 
Burleigh,  Lord,  60,  178. 

Cambeidoe,  100,  113. 
Cambridgeshire,  100,  102,  135. 
Canada,  44. 
Capital,  25,  88  f.,  103  f.,  123  f. 

Personal,  193. 

Carlyle,  T.,164. 

Cashmere,  39. 

Chalmers,  Dr.,  9. 

Character,   9,   18,  20,  62  f.,  176  f., 

183  f.,  108  f.,  207  f. 
Charles  I.,  58. 
Charles  ii.,  51. 
Chinnmen,  28,  30. 
Christendom,  41,  203. 
Civil  War,  8,  56. 
Clarendon,  Earl  of,  62. 
Cla.-sical  Eoononiiats,  158.  168.  204. 
Clongh.  A.  H.,41. 
Cobden,  R.,  169. 
Coiiiuge,  51. 

Colonial  Natitnalism,  87. 
Cfilonioation,  31. 
Coirniuuications,  30,  38,  169. 
Ci'Uimunitini,  22. 
Company,  114,  ISl,  192. 


230 


INDEX 


(:k»mpetltion,  31,  104  f. 
Constitution,  55,  62. 
Co-operation,  74,  89. 
Co-partnership,  131. 
Corn  Laws,  169. 
Cosmopolitanism,  37  f. 
Craft  guilds,  106,  114. 
Craftarnen,  106,  114  f.,  12L  171. 
Credit.  61,  70,  87,  128. 
Cromwell,  0.,  35,  43,  61. 

Dacca,  39. 

DanegeH,  139. 
David,  King,  203. 
De  Bfcers,  33. 
Decadence,  29,  59,  65,  82. 
Dickens,  C,  164. 
Discipline,  17,  42  f.,  152. 
Division  of  labour,  21,  74. 

E0CLE8IA8TK8,  186. 
Economic  forces,  27,  38,  40 

law,  164,  166. 

science,  4,  158  f. 

Educfitiou,  34,  212. 

Edward  I.,  100,  178  n. 

Edward  in.,  102,  115. 

Edward  vi.,  51. 

Egypt,  5,  32,  37. 

Elizabeth,   Queen,  49,  51,  115,  129, 

150,  168. 
Emperor,  177. 
Empire,  Briti«b,  36  f.,  43,  90,  169. 

German,  90. 

Roman,  26,  92,  184,  208. 

Enclosure,  112. 

Energy,  161. 

Enterprise,  131,  151. 

Equality  of  opportunity,  149,  1.',]. 

Exchange,  24  f.,  51,  92,  105. 

value,  158. 

Exchequer,  61. 
Expe<liency,  M. 

FAOTOuaa,  105,  136. 
Acta,  166. 


Faery  Queene,  214. 

F.'utli,  187. 

Pall.  186. 

Family,  25,  29. 

Food-.supply,  1,  8,  38,  89, 150, 167  £ 

France,  61,  173. 

Franks,  27,  29. 

Fumes.s,  Sir  C,  131. 

Gaping  Gulf,  49. 
Gaul.  28. 
Geor,'!;e  IIT.,  I.'i2. 
Germans,  36,  90. 
Gig-mills,  119. 
GodiviD,  W.,  174. 
Greece,  37.  186. 
Gaiana,  33. 

Hadeian,  81. 

HaiLilton,  A.,  89. 

ITappiness,  20. 

Harington.  J.,  174. 

denry  II.,  35. 

Hindu.  28.  30. 

Uobbes.  T.,  27. 

HoMin?;*,  Sm.^11,  87.  112,  171. 

Hours  of  labour,  61,  90,  96,  118. 

House  of  Commons.  135. 

Housing.  Ijlf..  133  f. 

Huns,  -27. 

Hyndman,  H.  M.,  25,  26. 

IMPBOVIDENCI,  27. 

Incarnation,  180. 

Increment,  2'2,  14$  f. 

India,  5,  39.  71  n.,  109. 

Indian,  North  American,  22,  24,  37, 

30. 
Infidels,  200. 
Inquisition.  68,  204. 
Interest.  52,  71,  92.  125  f. 
Interlopers,  106. 
Ireland,  23.  35,  170. 
Islam,  30. 
laraelite,  78. 
lUly,  28,  36. 


TMDBX 


J31 


Jambb,  St.,  219. 
JaMOil.,  128,  147. 
JcToni,  W.  S  ,  98. 
Jews,  200. 

John.  St.,  Baptut,  224. 
Jud»ism.  137.  203,  21  i). 
Justices  of  Peace,  1S7. 

KUtBKRUIT,  33. 

Labour,  indentnred,  83. 

Sl»Te,   S3,    182 ;    »et  DiTision, 

Hours,  Wages. 
Laiuer  favre,  li.  »0.  107. 
Land,  Usee  of,  137  ;  we  Increment, 

R«nt 
Law  of  Dirainishinf?  Return,  3  f. 

Population,  3  f.  ;  «e«  Economic. 

Laurua,  222. 

Leisure,  24,  06,  153,  169,  187  f. 

Lenthal,  Sir  J.,  6L 

Locke,  J.,  69. 

Ix)nibard3,  57. 

Loudon.  8.  104,  141. 

Lcmdon  Gazette.  124. 

Lorda  Lieutenant,  137. 

Maohikkrt,  23,  3»,  121,  172. 
Mahometan,  31,  216. 
Malthus,  2,  9,  91. 
Mammon,  201. 
Man,  economic,  19. 

as  aniiiial,  1  f.,  21. 

as  raticnal.  5  f. ,  174. 

Manchester  School,  63. 
Manufactures.  84,  88,  103,  116,  122. 

Indian,  39. 

Marco  Polo,  30. 

Marx,  K.,  26. 

Maurice.  F.  D..  73,  201,  210. 

Merchant  of  Venice.  126. 

MiddU  Agea,  6,  30  46. 106, 112,  126, 

171,  178,  20.3 
Mill,  J.  8.,  107. 
Milton,  J.,  tl. 
Mining,  82. 


.\roney,  24.  61.70,  104,  117,  123  f., 
l<>2f.,  206  f. 

nieasureraent,  98. 

MonW,  General,  62. 
Moiiopoly,  85,  108,  120, 134. 
Monie  Carlo,  195. 
More,  SirT.,  174. 
M<).ses,  222. 
Municipal  trading,  182. 

Nafolkon.  51,  64,  129.  169. 

Navy,  f>2,  61,102. 

Naz.^l•eth.  221. 

Neproes,  31.  35. 

Nelson,  Lord,  102. 

New  Eiiglaiul,  58. 

New  Hampshire,  68. 

Nfw  Lanark,  174. 

New  River  Co.,  147. 

Now  Zealand,  31. 

Nicholson,  Prof.  J.  S.,  83  n.,  168. 

Norman  Conquest,  137,  213. 

Obkdiencb,  49,  69,  222. 
Old  T.'stament,  186,  224. 
Oneida  Reservation,  24. 
Owen,  Robert,  174. 
Ozra,  Princess,  179. 

Papact,  46,  296. 

Parable  of  Tare.*,  220. 
Parliament,  37,  50,  61. 

Long,  61 ;  see  House  of  CommOBkk 

Passions,  17,  35,  41,  65,  188  f. 
Pasture,  6. 

Patriotism,  37,  73,  179. 
Pauperism,  9,  92,  214. 
Pessimism,  6. 
Petty,  Sir  W.,  162. 
Pharaohs,  6,  7. 
Pharisees,  208.  215. 
Philanthropists.    41,    164,   199,   202. 

212. 
Philosophy,  19,  170,  18«,  206. 
Pitt.  W.,  74. 
Polygamy,  29. 


231 


INDEX 


Population,  Redundant,  9,  91. 

Law  of,  3  f. 

Portuguese,  31. 

Prodigal,  19. 

Profit,  123  f. 

Protectorate,  81. 

Proverbs,  186. 

Psalms,  73. 

Public  spirit,  50  f. 

Pnnishraent,   47,   52,  66  f.,  76,   101, 

202,  205. 
Puritans,  50.  204  f. 

Racbb,  Native,  21  f.,  180  f. 
Reformation,  115. 
Rent,  104,  137  f  ,  209. 
Revenue,  51,  97,  127,  137,  214. 
Revolution,  168, 170,  178. 
Reward,  33,  82  f.  ;  of  labour,  99  ;  see 
Profit,  Rent. 

Soot,  30. 

Scotland,  23,  37,  85,  204. 
Scripture,  184,  191. 
Self-discipline,  184,  191. 
Self-sacritice,  113,  153,  180,  185. 
Sermon  on  Mount,  208  f. 
Settlers,  37. 
Sinking  Fund,  71. 
Skill,  2,  6,  21,  33,  72,  91,  109,  111, 

151,  160,  171. 
Slaves,  34,  62,  82,  99,  182. 
Slays,  102. 
Smith,   Adam,   38n.,69n.,  96,147, 

158,  162. 
Solomon,  203. 
Spain,  28,  40. 
Spenser,  Edmund,  214. 
Spinning  jennies,  119. 
Standard  of  comfort,  8,  32,  36,  79  f., 

100  f.,  118  f.,  141  f.,  168, 173, 192, 211, 
Standard  Oil  Companj,  131,  134. 


Stevenson,  O.,  103. 

Stock  Exchange,  195. 

Struggle  for  existence,  4,  7, 21, 27, 39  f. 

Stuart  kings,  43,  150. 

Stubbe,  J.,  49. 

Suffolk,  119. 

Sweating,  121  f. 

Swedes,  36. 

Tamhakt  Haul,  55. 

Taxation,  47,  64,  69  f.,  127,  189  f. 

Thomey.  138. 

Tillage,  2,  5,  7,  22,  102,  139  168, 171. 

Trade  Unions,  liS  f. 

Tradition,  59. 

Trafalgar,  102. 

Trusts,  131. 

Turks,  200. 

Unbmplotmewt,  92,  121,  205. 
Union,  37. 

United  States,  11,  35,36,  43,  54  f., 
89,  144. 

Utilitarianism,  54. 
Utility,  94,  158. 
Utopias,  174 

Vai.uk,  24,  93  f.,  145,  163. 

Vandxls,  27. 

Village  community,  6. 

Virginia,  34. 

Virility.  29. 

Waois,  4,  33,  78,  1»5,  117.  122,  168 

172,  205. 
Wages  fund,  166. 
War,  42  n.,  47,  57,  64.  69,  71,  88. 
Watt,  J.,  103. 
Wealth,  23  f. ,  53. 

Aggregate,  96. 

Welfare,  72  f.,  81,  85  f.,  119, 177. 
Witches,  58,  204,  220. 


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